


& %> W 




«° 9 <r *V 









* • o 













v*Cr 










ill- vo^. :?JMb»; .^ 'JSmS: *°^ *f§ 



*^ 



^°^ 



A/|py\ : IP/Vwy 



A '-IIP A* otf /*% : lif-v* 




BOOK OF 
AMERICAN BAKING 



A PRACTICAL GUIDE COVERING VARI- 
OUS BRANCHES OF THE BAKING 
INDUSTRY, INCLUDING CAKES, 
BUNS, AND PASTRY, BREAD 
MAKING, PIE BAKING, ETC 



PUBLISHED BY THE 

AMERICAN TRADE PUBLISHING COMPANY 

NEW YORK CITY 






Copyright 1910, &y the 

American Trade Publishing Co. 
All Rights Reserved. 



/ 



©CLA275809 



FOUR PARTS 



Part I. Cakes, Buns and Pastry 
Part II. Pie Baking 
Part III. Bread-Making 
Part IV. Miscellaneous 



«L 



Any recipe or other information re- 
garding the Baking Industry not found 
in the BOOK OF AMERICAN 
BAKING will be furnished free to all 
subscribers of BAKERS WEEKLY. 
CJ Address all communications to the 
American Trade Publishing Company, 
New York City. 



INDEX 



CAKES, BUNS AND PASTRY. 



Alberts n 

Angel Cake II 

Apple Cake, Plain 19 

Bath Buns 43 

Bolivars 11 

Butter Cakes 43 

Butter for Cake Baking... 34 

Caramel Cake 13 

Charlotte Russe 45 

Cheese Cake 12 

Cinnamon Drops 45 

Cocoanut Cake 12 

Cocoanut Kisses 44, 45 

Corn Muffins 46 

Cream Cakes 44 

Cream Puffs 44 

Cream Rolls 44 

Creaming Methods 29 

Crullers 43,47 

Cup Cake 12, 13 

Currant Cake 12 

Currant Diamond 44 



Doughnuts 46 

Drop Cakes 14 

Eclairs 47 

Eggs 35 

Fancy Cakes 14 

Florence Cakes 15 

Flour for Cake Baking 33 

French Crullers 47 

Fruit Cakes 14,26 

Genoa Cake 15, 25 

Ginger Bread 47 

Ginger Cakes 15 

Ginger Nuts 15 

Ginger Snaps 47 

Hints on Cake Baking 33 

Honey Cakes 15 

Ice Cream Cones 48 

Icing 48 



INDEX— Continued 



Jams and Jellies 61 

Jelly Roll 15, 16 

Jelly Squares 49 

Jumbles 49, 50 

Lady Cake 16 

Lady Fingers 16 

Large Cakes 25 

Ledner Pound Cake 28 

Lemon Cakes 17 

Lo Soni Cake 25 

Lunch Cakes 17 

Macaroons 55 

Marble Cake 17 

Marshmallow Filling 55 

Marshmallow Icing 55 

(See Icing) 48 

Meringue 55 

Meringue Pie 55 

Metropolitan Cake 18 

Milan Cake 17 

Mince Meat 55 

Miscellaneous Cake Baking 

35,37,40 

Molasses Cakes 18 

Molasses Fruit Cake 26 

Muffins, Corn 46 

Napoleons , . . 56 

Neopolitan Cake 56 

New Ye* r § Cake 19 

Orange Cake 19 

Orange Pastry Tarts 56 

Orange Squares 56 



Patties 57 

Patty Shells 57 

Pie Baking 135 

Pineapple Tarts 58 

Foor Man's Bread 45 

Pound Cake 28 

Pound Cake for Whole- 
sale 28 

Puff Paste 58 

Pumpernicle 57 

Raisin Cakes 19, 27 

Roosevelts 20 

Scones 60 

Scotch Short Cake 20 

Self-Raising Flour 41 

Soda Cakes 20 

Spice Cakes 21,22 

Sponge Biscuit 59 

Sponge Cake 20 

Sugar Cakes 21 

Sugar for Cake Baking... 34 

Tarts 58 

Tea Biscuit 60 

Tutti-Frutti Cake 22 

Vanilla Jumbles 49 

Velvet Cake 22 

Vienna Biscuit 60 

White Mountain Cake 23 

White Squares 60 

Wine Cake 23 



INDEX" Continued 

BREAD-MAKING, ETC. 

Corn Flakes, Use in Bread- Malt Extract in Bread- 
Making 125 Making 113 

Cotton Seed Oil in Bread- Potato Flour and Bread. 129 

Making 121 

6 Rye Bread 107 

Doughs Leavened by Yeast 95 Technology of Bread- 
Making 67 

Fermentation 131 

i7i^,^ ~~a t>^.,a T ~~ Variations in Bread 
Flour and Bread 129 Textures I03 

Flour and Milling 68 

Yeast and Ferments 75 

Greek Bread 105 Yeast, Vienna Process 85 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



Accounting Systems . . . .* 165 Marshmallow Filling. 

(See Icing.) 
Bacteria Contamination Milk Value in Bread. ... i 5S 

inBread l61 MinceMeat 55 

Cotton Seed Oil in Bread ( See Pie Baking.) 

Making 121 

Ovens, Heating, etc 143 

Flour and What Flour 

Will Produce 147 Pi e Baking 135 

Flour Tests 171 Potato Flour and Bread. 129 

Icing 48 Self-Raising Flour 41 



€r 



Part I 



Cakes, Buns and 
Pastry 



CAKES, 
BUNS and PASTRY 

Angel Cakes and Food. 

2 qts. Whites.- i54 lbs. Flour. 

2^/2 lbs. Sugar. 1 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

If preferred, a little more sugar and a little less flour 
may be used. Angel Food is practically the same as Angel 
Cake. Do not grease pans, but dip in water before filling. 
Turn upside down as soon as taking from the oven. Ice cake 
as desired. 



Alberts. 

Four lbs. flour, 2 lbs. sugar, 14 oz. butter and lard, 8 
eggs, H oz. ammonia and a little lemon oil. Break and rub 
the butter and lard into the flour so as to incorporate it well. 
Make a tray, and place sugar in it, the eggs next, and the 
ammonia and oil of lemon. Beat the eggs a little with the 
hand so as to mix well the ammonia and oil of lemon. Work 
all together and shake up until thoroughly mixed; next 
break into small pieces and roll into balls, and when all are 
finished place them 1^2 inches apart in pans without grease. 

Then with a rounded point cone made for the purpose, 
press in the center of each, so that they will break open in 
three or four places around the sides, and bake in a tolera- 
bly warm oven. 



Bolivars. 
(See recipe for Molasses Cakes.) 



12 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Cup Cakes. 

3 lbs. Sugar. ij4 oz. Soda. 

\ l / 2 lbs. Butter. 3 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

18 Eggs. \Y 2 qts. Milk. 

6 lbs. Flour. 

Proceed same as ordinary fancy or drop cake. Bake in 
hot oven. 



Cocoanut Cakes. 

V/2 lbs. Sugar. J4 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

3 oz. Butter. 3 lbs. grated Cocoanut. 

H lb. Flour. Egg Yolks. 

Flavor (usually Lemon). 
Use enough of the egg yolks to make a medium stiff 
dough and bake in a hot oven. 



Currant Cake, No. 1. 

Two pounds of sugar, 1 pound of lard, 12 eggs, 2 quarts 
of milk, 1 ounce of soda, 2 pounds of small currants, 3^2 
pounds of strong cake flour, 2 ounces cream of tartar, flavor 
with strawberry. 

Take the sugar and lard, rub to a cream, add the eggs, 
next add the milk. Dissolve soda in the milk, put the currants 
in, mix all together, take your sieve, put over the bowl. Put 
the flour and cream of tartar in sieve and sieve through, 
mix light. Bake in small cup cake pans, grease light. These 
cakes you do not ice. Sell for one cent each, or six for five 
cents. Bake in heat of 550 degrees F. 



Currant Cake, No. 2. 
(Small Mixture.) 

Three-quarters pound sugar, ?4 pound lard, 5 eggs, J£ 
pint milk, y 2 pound currants, J4 ounce soda, 2j4 pounds flour, 
1 ounce cream tartar. 

This cake is mixed and baked the same as Currant Cake 
No. 1. 



CAKES, BUNS AND PASTRY 13 

Cheese Cake. 

Two lbs. of cheese passed through a sieve. Put in a bowl 
and add half a pound of powdered sugar, 4 eggs, 3 oz. of 
butter and 2 oz. of cornstarch or 4 oz. of flour mixed well 
together; flavor with cinnamon, lemon, vanilla or mace. 
Vanilla and lemon may be used together. The mixture 
should be of a running order, adding sufficient milk to be- 
come so. Cheese cake, when baked, should have the appear- 
ance of custard, it should be nice and smooth when cut. 
Cheese cake can be altered or cheapened to suit prices and 
trade. Less butter and eggs may be used and a propor- 
tionately large amount of cornstarch or flour and milk 
added. 

Care should be taken in selecting a good cheese for this 
cake. Hard, sandy and dry cheese is as good as useless, for 
you never get the "grit" out of it, and it will absorb the milk 
or moisture. All cheese cakes when baked are sprinkled 
over with powdered sugar. 



Cup Cake, No. 1. 

Two and one-half pounds of sugar, \y 2 pounds lard or 
butter, 15 eggs, 1 quart milk, 1 ounce soda, ay 2 pounds flour, 
2 ounces cream of tartar, flavor with vanilla. 

Take sugar and lard, rub to a cream. Next add the eggs, 
mix. Take the milk. Dissolve the soda in the milk, mix to- 
gether. Take your sieve, put over the bowl. Put your flour 
in and cream of tartar. Sieve through, mix and bake in heat 
of 500 degrees F. These cakes are baked in large lunch 
cake pans. When baked and cooled, ice with vanilla and 
chocolate, and sell at two cents each, or three for five cents. 



Cup Cake, No. 2. 

(Small Mixture.) 

One pound sugar, y 2 pound lard or butter, 7 eggs, 1 
quart milk, y 2 ounce soda, 2 pounds flour, 1 ounce cream of 
tartar, flavor with vanilla. 

This mixture is made and baked in the same way as 
Cup Cake No. 1, only difference is, no icing. Put, say, about 
ten or twelve currants in each pan and bake in same heat 
as Cup Cake No. 1. 



14 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Caramel Cake. 

i lb. Butter. iy 2 pts. Milk. 

2%. lbs. Sugar. 2 gills Rosewater. 

3 Lemon Rinds (grated). ij4 lbs. Flour. 

1 teaspoonful powdered 9 oz. Corn Starch. 

Mace. 1 ?4 lb. Baking Powder. 

15 Eggs. 

A small quantity of Powdered Cinnamon. 
Cream sugar, butter, lemon and mace together, add eggs 
gradually, add rosewater and milk, kneading well. ^ Mix 
baking powder, flour and starch and add to mixture, stirring 
well. Bake in round pans, moderate oven. 

The filler is prepared as follows: 9 oz. Sugar, 3 Eggs, 1 
gill Caramel, 5 yolks Eggs, iy 2 tablespoonfuls Corn Starch, 
1Y2 pts. Milk. Cream eggs, sugar and caramel, beat yolks and 
starch together and mix all until smooth. Add milk and 
cook to a custard. Spread between layers and dust top of 
cake with powdered sugar. 



I. Drop Cakes. 

3 lbs. Sugar. 1 qt. Milk. 

1 y 2 lbs. Butter and Lard. 2 oz. Ammonia. 

20 Eggs. 2.y 2 lbs. Flour. 

Rub sugar and butter thoroughly, adding eggs gradually. 
Then add milk, flour and ammonia. Bake in hot oven. 



II. 



3 lbs. Sugar. 1 qt. Milk. 

\Y 2 lbs. Butter. iJ4 oz. Ammonia. 

15 Eggs. Ay 2 lbs. Flour. 
Cream and proceed as above. 



Fancy Cakes. 

6 lbs. Sugar. 1 1-3 oz. Soda. 

4 lbs. Butter. 1 1-3 oz. Ammonia. 

48 Eggs. 10 lbs. Flour. 

2 qts. Milk. 
Cream well and bake in hot oven. 



CAKES, BUNS AND PASTRY 15 

Fruit Cake. 

6 lbs. Sugar. 15 lbs. Raisins. 

6 lbs. Butter. 18 lbs. Currants. 

48 Eggs. iy 2 pts. Molasses. 

554 lbs. Flour. # pt. Brandy. 

Spices, etc. 
A smaller and different mixture with citron may be made 
as follows: \y 2 lbs. Sugar, iy 2 lbs. Butter, 15 Eggs, i l / 2 lbs. 
Flour, iY 2 lbs. Citron, 6 lbs. Raisins and Currants, z / 2 or full 
pint of Brandy. 



Florence Cake, 

Sugar, 1%. lbs.; butter, 12 oz.; whites, 1 pint; milk, I 
pint, soda, 1-3 oz.; cream of tartar, 2-3 oz.; flour, i^i lbs. 
Rub the butter and half the sugar light; beat the whites 
and the rest of the sugar to them. Then mix in with your 
rubbed butter and sugar; then milk, flavoring and flour. 



Genoa Cake. 
2 lbs. Sugar. 15 Eggs. 

V/ 2 lbs. Butter. 2*4 lbs. Flour. 

3 lbs. Currants and Citron. 

The above is a favorite English cake and is usually sold 
by the pound. 



Ginger Nuts. 

3 qts. Molasses. 3 lbs. Lard. 

\Y 2 pts. Water. i z / 2 lbs. Sugar. 

6 oz. Soda. 8 lbs. Flour. 

Less lard may be used if desired. Many add different 
spices. 



Ginger Cakes. 

Four lbs. flour, 1 qt. molasses, z / 2 lb. lard, y 2 pint water, 
1 oz. soda, 1 oz. ginger, little salt; place the flour on one 
side of the bowl; put molasses, lard, ginger and salt in the 
other. Mix one handful of the flour well into these ingredients; 
then add the soda dissolved in the water, and the remaining 
flour, and make a smooth dough. Roll out and cut with plain 
cutter; place on greased pans y 2 inch apart, and bake in hot 
oven. 



16 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Honey Cakes. 

Put 4 qts. molasses in a kettle and bring to boil. As 
soon as it starts to boil, add i pint water and take from fire. 
When almost cold mix in about 10 lbs. flour, i oz. cinnamon, 
ginger, and allspice, 2^ ozs. powdered ammonia, 1 oz. soda, 
and make a baking sample. If there is too much leavening in, 
work in some more flour; if not enough, work in some more 
ammonia. 



Jelly Roll. 

1V2. lbs. Sugar. 7 or 8 Eggs. 

2J4 lbs. Flour. Y A pt. Milk. 

1 ^2 oz. Baking Powder. 

If preferred J4 oz. of Soda and 1 oz. Cream of Tartar 
may be used instead of Baking Powder. It is important to 
note that this requires mixing only. Don't beat. 



Jelly Roll. 

3 J A lbs. Sugar. iqt. Warm Water. 

20 Eggs. 5 lbs. Flour. 

1 oz. Baking Powder. 

Add warm water after eggs and sugar are thoroughly 
beaten together, then add flour with which the baking powder 
has been mixed. Bake on wet paper and roll, just covering 
layer with jelly. 



Lady Finger. 

2 lbs. Sugar. 2% lbs. Flour. 

34 Eggs. Soda and Cream of Tartar. 

The eggs should be beaten while slightly warm. 



Lady Cake. 

2% lbs. Sugar. 36 Whites of Eggs. 

iY 2 lbs. Butter. 2J4 lbs. Flour. 

Almond or other flavor. 
Proceed same as "mixture No. 2" in marble cake recipe 
elsewhere. 



CAKES, BUNS AND PASTRY 17 

Lemon Cake. 

One and three-quarter lbs. flour, Y^ lb. lard, i pint mo- 
lasses, y 2 pint water, i oz. soda, a few drops of oil of lemon, 
a pinch of salt; mix one-third of the flour, the molasses, lard, 
salt and oil of lemon well together, then add the soda dis- 
solved in the water, and the remaining flour, and mix it per- 
fectly smooth. Bake in straight flanged round pans, greased, 
in a quick oven. 



Lunch Cake. 

Two pounds of powdered sugar, i pound of lard or but- 
ter, 10 eggs, 2 quarts of milk, i ounce of soda, 4 pounds of 
cake flour, 2 ounces of cream of tartar, flavor with vanilla. 

Take the sugar- and lard, put in the bowl, rub to a good 
cream. Next add the eggs, rub this also to a cream. Take 
the milk. Dissolve the soda in the milk and mix together. 
Now take your sieve, put over the bowl, put your flour in 
the sieve, put the cream of tartar on the flour, sieve through, 
mix and bake in greased lunch cake pans. Bake in heat of 
about 550 degrees F. When baked, ice with vanilla icing. 
When mixing this mixture, be very careful not to mix more 
than needed, for this will make your cake short and heavy. 
Sell for one cent each, or six for five cents. 



Milan Cake. 

Two pounds sugar, a pound of almond paste, a pound 
and a half of butter, 20 eggs, 4% lbs. cake flour, vanilla flavor. 
The almond paste, sugar and butter should be creamed up, 
the eggs added by turns, and then the flavor^ and the flour 
worked in. The mixture should then be medium stiff. Fill 
into bag with medium sized star tube and dress upon paper 
into small cakes of different shape, such as crescents, apples, 
fingers, etc.; then place a small piece of French fruit, a 
blanched and split almond or pistachio nut on top and bake 
in a moderate heat. 



Marble Cake. 

5 2-3 lbs. Sugar. 2^4 Qts. Whites of Eggs. 

4. l / 2 lbs. Butter. 6 lbs. Flour. 

Color one-quarter of the mixture with chocolate and 



18 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

another quarter with cochineal keeping one-half natural 
color. Start with a thin layer of the latter at the bottom, 
then drop in the other mixtures alternately with spoons, 
making such effects as the fancy of the operator may dictate. 



Mixture No. 2. 

Another good recipe for the above is as follows: 4^2 lbs. 
Sugar, iy 2 lbs. Butter, 3 oz. Baking Powder, 36 Whites of 
Eggs, 3 pints Water, 4^ lbs. Flour, Lemon flavor. Proceed 
same as for pound cake. When cool ice over and cut into 
squares. This mixture can also be used for a standard 
white cake. 



Molasses Cakes. 

3 pts. Molasses. sH lbs. Flour. 

3 pts. Water. 3 oz. Soda. 

1 lb. Lard. 2 Eggs. 

The above can be made with 1 egg. Some use 3 and 4 
eggs. Many also use about 3 oz. sugar. For Bolivars add 
spices. Sugar Bolivars are made as follows: 6 lbs. Sugar, 3 
lbs. Lard, 4^ oz. Ammonia, 3 qts, Milk, 12 lbs. Flour and 
Flavoring. 



Metropolitan Cake. 

One and one-half pounds sugar, 1 pound lard, 7 eggs, 1 
pint milk, y$ ounce soda, 2 pounds cake flour, 2 /z ounce cream 
of tartar, flavor with lemon. 

Take sugar and lard, rub to a cream. Add the eggs. Next 
take the milk. Dissolve the soda in the milk, mix together. 
Take your sieve, put over bowl, put flour and cream of tartar 
in it. Sieve through, mix and bake in large lunch cake pans 
in heat about 575 degrees F. When baked and cooled, jelly 
the side with fine currant jelly or any other good jelly. Dip 
them in cocoanut chopped fine. Keep them on a pan. Take 
a paper cornet, fill with vanilla and chocolate icing, more 
vanilla than chocolate. Put two round rings on top. These 
cakes are very good. Sold for two cents apiece, or three 
for five cents. 



CAKES, BUNS AND PASTRY 19 

New Year's Cake. 

i lb. Butter. % oz. Ammonia. 

2 lbs. Sugar. 3< oz. Carraway Seed. 

9 oz. Lard. 6 lbs. Flour. 

1^2 pts. Water. 

The dough for the above should be worked well. Break 
the butter up well with the sugar and water. 



Orange Cake. 

2i Eggs. H lb. Flour. 

i>2 lbs. powdered Sugar. y^ lb. Corn Starch. 

34 lb. Butter. 

First beat the yolks and whites separately. Mix together 
the flour and corn starch. Add to the whites, beaten very 
stiff, the yolks and sugar, separately, gradually. Next add 
flour, and while stirring pour in butter hot. Make a smooth 
batter and bake in hot oven. 

For the rilling use 12 yolks of Eggs, g oz. Sugar, 3 oz. 
Corn Starch, 3 Oranges, 1 Lemon, pint of Water. Use both 
the juice and rind (grated) of the oranges and the juice only 
of the lemon. Make a smooth cream of the sugar and starch 
and then add the orange and lemon mixture. Boil and then 
spread between each layer, icing on top with soft orange 
icing. 



Plain Apples. 

Two lbs. flour, \Y 2 lbs. sugar, 1 lb. butter or lard, or half 
of each, pinch of mace. Rub the sugar, eggs and shortening 
lift, add the mace, ammonia dissolved in the milk, and then 
the flour. Roll out and cut with a square fluted cutter. Place 
on lightly greased pans, and bake in a moderate oven. 



Raisin Cake. 

6 lbs. Sugar. y 2 oz. Soda. 

zVa lbs. Butter. 1 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

Z7 Eggs. 9 lbs. Flour. 

2Y 2 qts. Milk. 9 lbs. Raisins. 



20 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

This makes an exceptionally fine cake. If desired citron, 
currants or peel can be used instead of raisins. 



Roosevelts. 

In a bowl beat i pound 5 ounces of sugar, four whole 
eggs and 20 yolks light. In the meantime whip 16 whites of 
pgg very stiff, gradually adding 8 ounces of powdered sugar, 
and carefully mix it in. Add 6 ounces Sultana raisins, 4 
ounces of very clean currants, 2 ounces finely minced citron, 
1 pound 9 ounces of flour, and finally 6 ounces melted butter. 
Fill into melon-shaped pans, which have been greased and 
dusted with flour, and bake in a cool oven. As soon as 
baked turn cakes out on a sieve and dust while hot liberally 
with vanilla sugar. 



Scotch Short Cake. 

3 lbs. Flour. % lb. Lard. 

iVz lbs. Butter. % lb. Butter. 

54 lb. Sugar. 
The above should be worked into a good stiff dough and 
baked in a cool oven. Too much heat will spoil it. 



Sponge Cake. 

i T A lbs. Sugar. 2 lbs. Flour. 

16 Eggs. i l / 2 oz. Baking Powder. 

Cream well and use a good cream of tartar baking 
powder. 



Soda Cakes. 

ZVa, lbs. Sugar. 6^4 lbs. Currants. 

33/4 lbs. Butter. iy 2 lbs. Citron. 

13^2 lbs, Self-raising Flour. 15 Eggs. 

3 qts. Milk. 

The above are usually baked in square molds. Recipe 
for self-raising flour is published elsewhere. 



CAKES, BUNS AND PASTRY 21 

Sugar Cakes. 

6 lbs. Butter (or half 4^ oz. Ammonia. 

Lard). 2^ qts. Milk. 

9 lbs. Sugar. 30 Eggs. 

18 lbs. Flour. 
Add flour last and do not work dough too much. Use 
exact proportions given. 



Sugar Cakes Without Eggs. 



6 


lbs. Sugar. 


2 qts. Water. 


2 


lbs. Lard. 


2.y 2 oz. Ammonia. 
12 lbs. Flour. 



Butter is usually used instead of lard. It is frequently 
used half and half. Milk is generally used also in place of 
water. 



Sugar Cakes. 

Four lbs. flour, 2 lbs. sugar, 1 lb. lard or butter, or half of 
each, 5 eggs, 5 gills of milk or water, Yz oz. ammonia, J4 °z- 
soda, few drops of oil of lemon, and if lard is used, a pinch 
of salt; rub the butter or lard with the sugar until light, then 
rub in the eggs and soda; next add the ammonia dissolved 
in the milk or water, and the oil of lemon. When all these 
are slightly mixed work in the flour smoothly, roll out with 
rolling pin, and cut with fluted cutter; place on greased pans 
J4 inch apart, and bake in hot oven. 



Spice Cakes. 

2 lbs. Crumbs. J4 oz. Soda. 

24 lb. Lard. 1 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

Y A lb. Sugar. ij4 pts. Water. 

10 or 11 Eggs. 2Y A lbs. Flour. 

V/2, pts. Molasses. Spices. 

The pans should be well greased. The tops are usually 
iced. 



22 BOOK Or AMERICAN BAKING 

Spice Cake. 

One-half pound sugar, y 2 pound lard, 2 eggs, 1 pound 
stale cake, J^ ounce soda, 1 quart molasses, 1 quart water, a 
few drops of cochineal, 2j4 pounds flour, ^ ounce cream of 
tartar. 

Take sugar and lard and mix to a cream, add eggs, next 
take the crumbs. Mix together and add the molasses and 
milk. Take the water, add the soda and mix together. Put 
the flour in the sieve and cream of tartar, sieve through. 
Mix and bake in lunch cake pans. Grease heavy. Bake in 
good heat, 600 degrees F. When baked and cool, ice with 
chocolate icing. Sold for one cent each, or six for five cents. 



Tutti Frutti Cake. 

Tutti Frutti Cake is made with ordinary cake mixture, 
any price you may wish, usually baked in pound moulds, cov- 
ered on top with assorted fruit glace, including Almonds, 
Figs, Cherries, Apricots, etc., chopped fine and mixed with 
water icing. Some use whipped cream and as layer cake. 



Velvet Cake. 

1 J/2 lbs. Sugar. 1 oz. Bitter Almonds 
54 lb. Butter. (blanched and pow- 

9 Eggs. dered). 

W2 gills thick Cream. 2%. teaspoonfuls Baking 

1 big spoonful Rosewater. Powder. 

\V 2 lbs. Flour. 

Separate yolks and white of eggs. When butter and 
sugar are thoroughly creamed, add yolks whipped thick. 
Next pour in the cream, almond paste and flour. Beat until 
smooth. Then add the flour and whites, which have been 
previously beaten stiff. Bake in shallow pans lined with but- 
tered paper. Do not have the oven too hot. 



CAKES, BUNS AND PASTRY 23 

Wine Cake Mixture. 

2^ lbs. sugar; V/* lbs. lard; 4^ lbs. flour; 3 oz. baking 
powder; 2 T / 2 pts. milk; i}/2 pts. eggs; flavor. 





Wine Cake. 


zVa lbs. Sugar. 
2 lbs. Butter. 
21 Eggs. 


3 pts. Milk. 

1 oz. Ammonia. 

2 oz. Cream of Tartar. 
6^4 lbs. flour. 


Bake in hot oven. 


Cream, butter and sugar well and use 


:t proportions given. 


White Mountain Cake. 


4J^ lbs. Sugar. 

2^4 lbs. Butter. 
18 Eggs (Whites 
V/2 pts. Milk. 


V/i oz. Soda. 
3 oz. Cream of Tartar. 
5 only). 3 1-5 lbs. Flour. 

Lemon or Orange flavor. 



These cakes are made to sell at 25 cents each. By cheap- 
ening the ingredients, however, many sell them at 15 cents, 
which seems to be the popular price. 



ffi 



LARGE CAKES 



BY LOUIS STERN 



Lo Soni Cake. 

Twenty-one pounds of powdered sugar, 13^ pounds of 
lard or butter; this must be rubbed well for fifteen minutes, 
and if made with cake machine will take eight or ten minutes; 
add 6 pints of eggs (rub them a few at a time), 3 quarts 
water or milk. Dissolve 2 ounces of ammonia in wet part 
of mixture, ij4 ounces of ground mace, 1 ounce of gelatine. 
Mix this all together. Next put 1 pound of egg nuterine or 
2 teaspoonfuls of egg color; add 24 pounds of strong cake 
flour, with 1^2 ounces cream of tartar. Mix this all to- 
gether. Mix very light. This is baked in thin pound cake 
pans; each pan will hold from 7 to 9 pounds; fill three- 
quarters full, close lid down tight and set in cool oven in heat 
of about 33 degrees F. Baked, but still hot, take a good egg 
icing and cool it with some walnuts and sprinkle on top. 
This cake can be sold for 12 or 14 cents per pound, accord- 
ing to trade. 



Genoa Cake. 

(Sold by the pound.) 

No. 1. 
Five pounds of granulated sugar, 3^ pounds of lard or but- 
ter, 40 eggs, 1 ounce ammonia, 4 pounds raisins, 2 1 /* pounds 
citron, 8 pounds of cake flour; rub sugar to a cream; add 



2S BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

slowly few eggs at a time; dissolve ammonia in % gill of 
cold milk; mix raisins and citron together and add to mix- 
ture. Now put in your flour; mix light, and bake in one 
large pan, greased good and thick; put heavy paper around 
and put in oven in slow heat of about 330 degrees F. When 
baked and still hot, put over it a good boiled fondant icing 
and sprinkle a few chopped nuts over the top. This is a 
very good cake and will lay for months without getting 
mouldy or hard. Sold for 12 or 14 cents a pound. 



Fruit Cake No. 1. 

Thirteen pounds of powdered sugar, 12 pounds of lard, 
100 eggs, 2 quarts of molasses, 1 pint of good sherry wine, 
J4 pound of gelatine, 30 pounds of currants, 25 pounds of 
raisins, 10 pounds of citron and 10 pounds of strong cake 
flour. Put sugar and lard in cake machine, let work good. 
Next add the eggs and dissolve gelatine in y 2 gill of water; 
add gelatine, molasses, currants, citron and raisins; let mix, 
and last add the flour. This is baked in large pound cake 
tins without a cover; put in oven in slow heat of about 330 
degrees F. Very good cake, sold for 10 cents a pound. 



Fruit Cake No. 2. 

Bake in small duchess cake pans and sold by the pound 
at 10 cents per pound. Take 7 pounds of sugar, $ Z A pounds 
of lard of cottonseed oil, 50 eggs, 1 quart of molasses, 1 pint 
of good sherry wine, 2 ounces gelatine, 15 pounds of cur- 
rants, 4 pounds of citron, 5 pounds of raisins, and 5 pounds 
of strong flour, with 4 ounces cream of tartar. This is mixed 
the same as Fruit Cake No. 1. Baked in a heat of 400 de- 
grees F. 



Molasses Fruit Cake. 

(Sold by the pound; 12 cents per pound.) 

Take 11 pounds of granulated sugar, 6]4 pounds of hard 
lard, 70 eggs, 3 quarts milk, iy 2 quarts of water, ij4 ounces 
soda, 3 ounces cream of tartar, 2 ounces of gelatine, 12 



LARGE CAKES 27 

pounds of currants and 21 pounds of strong cake flour. Rub 
sugar and lard to a cream; next add the eggs, few at a time; 
dissolve soda and gelatine in the water; add milk and water. 
Mix together, then add the flour and cream of tartar, and 
last add the currants. Of course you can use any other fruit 
instead of currants, such as raisins, citron, lemon peel, and 
so on. Mix light and make in two large pound cake forms, 
propped down with large bricks. When this is half baked, 
take large piece of thick paper, put over the cake so it will 
not get too black, and put in heat of about 300 degrees F. 
When baked, turn over so to get to the bottom. Take some 
soft chocolate icing with some candy fruit, and pour over the 
cake. This cake must be kept in a showcase or a closed box 
so as to keep it away from the air. If kept away from air 
it will keep soft and fresh for weeks. 



Raisin Cake No. 1. 

Take 3 pounds of sugar, 2 pounds lard, 35 eggs, Yi 
ounce soda, 1 ounce cream of tartar, 2 pounds raisins, 1^2 
pounds of currants, flavor, and 4^ pounds strong cake 
flour. Take sugar and lard, rub to a cream; rub for about 10 
minutes; add slowly the eggs, few at a time; take soda and 
dissolve in ^ of a gill of water. Now add your cream of tar- 
tar, flour, raisins and currants, and mix light. This cake is 
baked in diamond-shaped forms, about 20 pounds to the 
form; lay on flat baking pans, prop down with heavy bricks 
so it will not run from under. This cake is baked in a heat 
of 250 degrees F. 



Cheap Raisin Cake No. 2. 

Fourteen pounds of sugar, 9 pounds of lard, 2j4 quarts 
of eggs, 1 ounce gelatine, ?4 egg nutrine, 2 quarts of water, 
1 ounce of mace, 2 ounces cream of tartar, 6 pounds raisins 
and 15 pounds of strong cake flour. Rub sugar and lard 
to a cream, add slowly the eggs, few at a time. Dissolve 
gelatine and add egg nutrine in the water and mix. Now 
add the mace; mix all together, then take 15 pounds of flour; 
sift flour and cream of tartar, mix light. This is baked in 
duchess cake pans lined out with thick paper. Two pounds 
to the pan. Sprinkle fine raisins on top of cake and bake in 
heat of 300 degrees F. Takes one-half hour to bake. 



28 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Ledner Pound Cake. 

Fourteen pounds of sugar, 9 pounds of lard, 5 quarts 
of eggs, 2^4 quarts milk, 2 ounces of gelatine, 1 ounce of mace, 
a little vanilla, 1 ounce of soda, 2 ounces of cream of tartar, 
and 14 pounds of flour. Take sugar and lard and rub to a 
cream. Now add the eggs, 1 quart to every 2 minutes till 
all gone; take the gelatine, mace and vanilla, soda and mix in 
the milk. Dissolve, mix good. Next add the flour and 
cream of tartar. Mix very light. Baked in large pound cake 
pans with closed tops, say 9 pounds to a pan; close down 
tight. Put in oven in heat of about 250 degrees F. When 
baked, take a good fondard icing with some chopped nuts 
or almonds, and sprinkle on top of cake while still hot. 



Pound Cake No. 1. 

Ten pounds of sugar, 7 pounds of cotton-seed oil, 90 
eggs, 1 quart milk, ij4 ounces gelatine, 1 ounce soda, V2 
ounce mace, vanilla, 12 pounds of cake flour. Rub sugar and 
lard to a cream; next add the eggs (few at a time), and dis- 
solve gelatine and soda in the milk with mace and flavor. 
Mix light and add flour and cream of tartar. Mix and bake 
in 10-pound cake pans lined with thick waxed paper. Bake in 
heat of 300 degrees F. Sold at 18 cents per pound. 



* 



POUND CAKE FOR WHOLESALE. 



The development of the pound cake business in America 
during the last five years has been rapid. Especially is this 
true of the East. New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Bal- 
timore have all consumed large quantities, while the western 
cities have not been as large consumers. The reason for 
the latter, I believe, is because in most cases those who 



LARGE CAKES 29 

have been pushing the business have tried to sell their goods 
too cheap or have gone to the other extreme and charged 
prices out of reach of the general purchasing public as an 
everyday commodity. Those who have charged the higher 
price have made more of a success than those who tried to 
sell too cheap. Hence I shall treat this matter from a stand- 
point of high class goods. 

In the first place I will consider the method of manu- 
facture, and the first thing to be considered is the method 
of creaming. 



Method of Creaming. 

The creaming of butter is the most essential feature 
of the cake business. A large number of bakers fail in this 
important point- Hard, lumpy butter and soft, oily com- 
pound, or lard, are thrown together into the machine; then 
the sugar is thrown in regardless of the lumps it may con- 
tain, and then the maker expects a fine smooth eating cake. 
This is a great mistake, as from such mixing satisfactory 
results cannot be obtained. Where two or more substances 
are being mixed together they should be of the same degree 
of toughness, as near as possible. 

Where it is desired to cream up a hard butter and a 
soft greasy butter or oily compound, the hard one should 
be worked either by the hand or the machine and made 
pliable, and the soft one should be put in the ice box to 
harden. When butter, or butter and lard or compound is 
being used, they should be of the same consistence as near 
as possible. 

The speed of the machine is also an important factor. 
About 150 revolutions a minute is a safe speed. Under no 
circumstance should a hard wiry or brittle butter be used. 
If used at all, it should be well worked with the machine 
before adding the sugar. In fact, it is a good plan to let 
the machine revolve a number of times with the butter alone, 
then add half of the sugar, which should be previously sifted 
through a fine sieve. When this has been well worked, add 
the balance of the sugar, extracts, or spice, and if you are 
using a coloring, this should now be put in. 

Let the machine run from five to ten minutes, according 
to the weather. In hot weather your materials all being 
hot the butter would gather heat and possibly cause your 
mixture to curdle. See that the mixture is scraped down 
in the machine thoroughly; then start machine again, adding 



30 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

the eggs a few at a time. When the eggs are all added, flour 
should be lightly mixed in, but never before it has been 
thoroughly sifted, as this is one of the greatest mistakes 
possible to make — to use flour that has not been incorporated 
with the air before mixing. When you are using glycerine, 
this should have been well worked up and added when a 
portion of the flour has been worked in, although if your 
butter is strong enough it is better to work the glycerine in 
when sugar is being mixed, but if your butter is any way 
soft this should not be done. In using glycerine too large 
quantities should not be used. The same is true of glucose, 
which if used in small quantities is an advantage, but when 
too large quantities are used most disastrous results are ob- 
tained. The judicious use of some of these articles are the 
roads between success and failure. It must not be supposed 
that these articles are used in all kinds of cakes, but cer- 
tain kinds of cakes they are the needed help, and are not 
used merely for the purpose of cheapening the cost, but to 
improve the quality. 

A cake to sell well must have flavor, texture and grain, 
and neither of these can be obtained from an imperfect 
mixture, or one that is imperfectly made. In using eggs, 
great care should be used in their selection, as when the 
prices are high and eggs scarce, these are the times when 
large quantities of cake are usually sold. Therefore, in figur- 
ing the cost of your cake, don't do it in June, when every- 
thing is naturally cheap. June and December do not work 
in harmony together, as a rule, and if you are basing your 
profits on June prices to sell in the spring months, when 
everything is high, you will have to readjust matters. With 
proper management, however, and carefully considering these 
matters, it will be possible to make a good cake at a popular 
price. 

In baking your cakes the pans should be covered similar 
to a sandwich pan. If you have no pans suitably covered, 
the pans can be covered with thick brown paper or thin 
wood — anything to keep the top heat of the oven from brown- 
ing the cake too much, as the sale of your cake will depend 
to a great extent upon the delicate appearance of it. When 
we state that these cakes are better if kept a few weeks 
before being sold, this possibly would seem strange to many 
of our readers ; nevertheless, it is a fact that if this class of 
cake is properly made and properly baked, age up to a limited 
time will be the determining factor in its quality. 

But it must be borne in mind that the storage of the 
cakes after being baked, or as soon as being removed from 



LARGE CAKES W 

the oven, will have much to do with the future keeping qual- 
ities of the cake. It is a mistake to turn the cake out on 
the iron pans or on wooden shelves and allow them to re- 
main there with the steam from the baking being kept in 
them, as you must recollect that the paper around the pans 
which in the baking has adhered to the cake has become 
thoroughly saturated with grease and has consequently prac- 
tically formed an air-proof surface. Therefore the steam 
has very little chance of escaping readily, and in order to 
get the best from this class of cakes they should cool off 
readily, and as soon as they are thoroughly cooled should at 
once be wrapped in an air-proof paper and stored on shelves, 
with sufficient space between all sides for a circulation of air 
between each cake. Your shelves also should be formed 
from slats, or if made from solid wood should have two 
such slats running longways, in order that the air can get 
under as well as' all around them. If placed flat on the 
shelves, the possibilities of moulding in hot weather is 
greater. I think now, that I have given pretty thorough in- 
structions, on a general principle. Of course, there will 
have to be instructions given occasionally in the various 
cakes that I will describe, but if the instructions which I 
have given here are carried out, the others will be mere 
matters of small importance. 

There is one thing here that I will speak of, and that is 
in the formula in which I give milk in: I meant you to be 
careful to see that in hot weather there is no chance of the 
milk being sour — or in fact at any time, although in hot 
weather the danger is much greater, both from the milk 
souring quicker and also from the fact that the cake is more 
readily to form a bacterial growth of a vicious ferment. 

In some of the cakes that I describe I shall mention 
baking powder. This will always mean cream of tartar, soda, 
or corn starch mixed in the proportions that I shall give 
later on. Under no conditions should the common phos- 
phate baking powder be used, although in some cheap small 
cakes these are to be preferred, but where it is necessary 
to use the cheap ones I will mention it. I contemplate giv- 
ing quite a number of cakes of different forms and flavors, 
and whilst this may seem unnecessary yet it may be helpful 
to some of our friends in various parts of the world. I will 
now proceed to give two formulas and will continue next 
month on same subject. 

56 pounds good white soft winter wheat flour, 

2,6 pounds good tough waxy butter, 

iy 2 pounds pure glycerine, 



32 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

46 pounds standard powdered sugar (46 pound), 

14 quarts good fresh eggs, 

2 quarts fresh sweet milk (not skim), 

1 ounce ground mace, 

3 ounces good vanilla extract, 

4 ounces baking powder. 

Place the sugar and butter into the mixer, letting it re- 
volve slowly. As it gradually creams up, add the glycerine. 
Add the eggs gradually, about a quart at a time. If the but- 
ter shows a tendency to curdle, add a few handfuls of flour. 
When the eggs are all in, add the milk; sift the baking pow- 
der and spices into the flour, and add to the mixture. Then 
mix lightly but thoroughly. 

Here is a cheaper cake, but one which is really a nice 
cake, and one that will sell well almost anywhere: 

15 pounds good butter, 

8 pounds cottoline and compound, 
33 pounds standard powdered sugar, 
54 pounds soft white winter wheat flour, 
12 ounces baking powder, 

8 quarts eggs, 
V/2 pounds glycerine, 

Extract vanilla or lemon. 

2 ounces ground mace, 
S Z A quarts milk, 

A little egg coloring used in your milk to make it the 
desired color would help the appearance of the cake. 

Cream up this, as in the preceding mixture, but as soon 
as the mixture is thoroughly mixed, place into the pans. 
The least handling after the cake is mixed the better, as 
there is quite a little powder used here, and you do not want 
it to work before going into the oven. 

I will now give the baking powder formula. Remember 
that the baking powder described here should be made at 
least three or four days before using, keeping it covered in an 
air-tight can. The reason it should be blended together is 
to avoid its hasty working when freshly mixed in the cakes: 

4 Pounds soda, 

7 pounds cream tartar, 

3 pounds corn starch. 

Mix all together and pass through a sieve several times, 
and then put into a can for storage. In using it, always sift 
it through a fine sieve with the flour. 



A FEW HINTS ON CAKE 
MAKING 



Flour for Cake Making. 

In order to secure the best results in cake baking the 
subject of Flour must be studied very carefully. 

For cake baking Winter Wheat flour, of course, is used. 
Unfortunately, there is no regular standard for Winter Wheat 
flour, hence the baker is constantly confronted with the 
necessity of solving many problems as to how to secure the 
best results with different brands, some being soft 
and others strong, tough, etc., all requiring a little different 
treatment. No "Fancy Straight" or "Patent Winter" flour, 
according to present standards, are the same, hence it is im- 
possible to give "standard" recipes in cake making. The 
best recipe ever devised will not be successful in every case. 
Bakers frequently condemn good recipes because they can- 
not get good results, not considering that there may be a 
great difference in the materials that they are using. 

The nearest approach to a standard formula are recipes 
such as sponge cakes, composed of i lb. of Sugar, i lb. of 
Eggs, i lb. of flour; or pound cake, made of i lb. of Sugar, 
i lb. of Butter, a pound of Eggs and a pound of Flour; dough- 
nuts, where 4 lbs. of Flour are used to the quart of Milk, etc. 

However, for the reason that every time we get flour the 
flour is different, the baker must change the recipe to conform 
with this difference in the flour. 

The most benefit, however, would be derived in knowing 
the necessary amount of milk to use, thereby obtaining that 
which is most important and necessary in successful cake 
making. 



34 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

There would be a help, also, in regard to the proper 
amount of mixing. For instance, if too strong a flour is used 
more milk or water must be added. The result is the mix is 
toughened, not only by the strong flour, but by destroying 
air cells, which are formed by beating the eggs, creaming 
the butter and sugar, and by the baking powder used. 



Sugar. 



Sugar is, next to flour, used most extensively in cake 
making. Standard powdered sugar is familiar to every baker. 
For a fine powder order XXXX, and a coarser one, fruit or 
a coarse powdered — also called non-caking powder. This 
sugar is the best to use for most purposes, as it will cream 
up easily with butter or with butter and lard. It is much 
better than standard powder to use for meringue, as it will 
mix^ more readily and therefore avoid a tendency of the 
meringues to get smeary, as is often the case when fine pow- 
der is used, which often contains starch. By the necessary 
sifting it needs, flour and other injurious matters are often 
mixed in. Although this is the best sugar for cake bakers to 
use, it is known to but very few bakers. It will not cake like 
standard powdered, and therefore does away with the annoy- 
ance of sifting lumpy standard powdered and saves time and 
waste of sugar. Light "C" and "A" sugar is sometimes good 
and profitable to use in cakes, as it imparts a nice color and 
bloom to the cakes and has a tendency to keep them moister 
and fresher. 



Butter. 



Butter is perhaps the most expensive material used in 
cake making. Many bakers use cheap butter, it sometimes 
being even rancid — fishy. It is unwise to use this class of 
butter, for the cakes will surely tell it in the taste. If the 
price of butter is high, it is better (in order to reduce the 
cost of the making of the cake) to use good butter and lard, 
cottolene, or some other similar compound with it. A very 
good way is to mix a two weeks , supply of butter and lard 
together, first leaving the butter in a warm room for a day 
or so, so that it will have the stiffness of the lard and will 
then mix easier and evenly with it. This seems to help keep 



LARGE CAKES 35 

the butter sweet and saves lots of time and weighing of butter 
and lard separately, and it is just the right firmness for 
creaming, and avoids the lumps which are often hard to rub 
smooth with the sugar while creaming in winter. It also 
helps to keep the butter firm and from getting too soft in 
summer when a stiff compound is mixed with it. It also 
saves money, as the proportion of butter and lard can be 
changed as butter gets cheaper or dearer. Sixty pounds of 
butter to ioo pounds of lard is frequently used. When butter 
is cheaper, use 75 to 100 pounds, and this can be changed to 
meet the class of goods turned out in the different bakeries. 



Eggs. 



Eggs have tried to be replaced by more substitutes than 
any other ingredient used in cake making. The first thing 
to consider in an egg substitute is, does it beat up well, as for 
sponge cakes? You cannot beat up or use many substitutes 
for sponge cake; but you can use them for anything else. 
However, half the quantity of eggs regularly used will often 
make a better cake than you can buy, using egg substitutes. 

Eggs are often wasted, more being used than necessary, 
and where they are of no benefit. It is poor policy to buy 
cheap eggs, as they are dear compared to good ones, consid- 
ering the little difference in price, sometimes being only two 
or three cents a dozen, which makes them dearer in the end 
than good eggs. 

Eggs known as "Spots" among bakers are not only en- 
tirely worthless but often spoil a cake. 



6 



ONE DOUGH FOR MANY CAKES 



The following relative to making as large a variety of 
cakes from one dough as is possible, without, however, having 
the cakes appear too much alike, and also have them taste 
different, by F. Bauer, of Chicago, should prove of great 
value to the general cake baker. 



36 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

A good many bakers make the mistake of flavoring al- 
most every cake alike, using lemon and mace or some other 
similar favorite spice or extract, giving them that monotonous 
bakers' taste. When more than one kind of cake is made 
from one mix, it saves the time for weighing and mixing, 
eliminates to some extent the chances of making mistakes, 
as it is hard to weigh small amounts of soda, baking powder 
and ammonia on the bake shop scale; and a little too much 
of either in a small mix is apt to spoil it, while it would hardly 
affect a large one. For this very reason many bakers who are 
not careful and who do not think it necessary to be accurate 
find it hard to work in small shops or in a bakery where small 
mixes are made. 

Cakes called Butter Rings and "SS" form a good example 
of the varieties of cakes that can be made from one mix, 
although a larger, smaller or better variety can be made from 
others. The Rings and "SS" can be made plain, some strewn 
with almonds, some with shredded cocoanut, some left plain 
and iced after baking, by melting the required amount of 
chocolate and adding to it a part of the dough, Chocolate 
Rings and "SS" can be made. 

Small cookies like Butter Wafers, Almond Wafers strewn 
with almonds, can be made, also small fancy shaped cookies 
like "SS," Hearts, Crescents, Rings and Ovals, decorated 
with cherries and angelica, can be made at Christmas time, 
and on other occasions, or regularly in better or fancy 
bakeries. 

One mix or dough from which can be derived a large 
benefit and satisfaction is the ordinary wine cake or layer 
cake mix, from which you can make layers for layer cakes, 
ten and five cent wine cakes, loaf cakes; adding chopped nuts 
and nut flavor to part of the mix, you can make nut cakes. 
By adding melted chocolate to a certain part of the mix, you 
can make devil's food cakes, lemon cakes, Boston squares, 
chocolate and maple squares, raspberry and chocolate drops, 
cup and currant cakes, and other cakes like nut and cocoanut 
slices, penny golden-rod squares, etc., can also be made. All 
these can be flavored and iced so that hardly any customer 
would even imagine that they were made from one and the 
same dough. This way of making cakes enables one to make 
larger mixes, make smaller amounts of each cake so they 
can be made fresh oftener, and keep a larger variety of cakes 
in store. On Mondays or other busy days, or when you want 
to get off a day or so, or being short of help, one can make a 
large assortment of cakes in a short time. 



GENERAL RULES. 



BY J. E. WIHLFAHRT. 



In making cakes, after the proper selection of ingredients, 
the respective quantity to be used is of great importance; and 
the binding material, or the ingredient which binds the different 
materials into the solid mass, when they come into contact with 
the heat during the process of baking cakes, deserves first at- 
tention. Flour, of course, ranks as the principal binding mate- 
rial and practically is the cheapest material, used in bulk, with 
which the cake-baker has to deal, and is the one that, by its 
judicious use, will cheapen or otherwise increase the cost of 
manufacture. 

This is due to the fact that a cake mixture, generally speak- 
ing, should be held as soft as possible, as a stirrer mixture would 
require additional ingredients in order to make the product of 
the same standard quality, and as flour usually is the cheaper 
ingredient, then it follows that a stiffer mixture would either 
decrease the quality of the product or increase the cost of manu- 
facture. Thus the various ingredients principally used in the 
manufacture of cakes are proportioned in the following way as 
to their binding qualities in a cake mixture : 

Taking as a basis a "pound cake mixture" consisting of one 
pound each of sugar, shortening, eggs and flour, and it would be 
desirable to cheapen this mixture by adding, say, milk and flour, 
it would be necessary to add the milk and flour in even pro- 
portions, and for each two ounces of milk and flour so added 
one-sixteenth of an ounce of baking powder would be required 
additionally, or in its place a proportioned amount of soda bicar- 
bonate and cream of tartar, which, in this case, would be one 
sixty-fourth of an ounce of the former and one thirty-second of 
an ounce of the latter. 

Should we continue to add flour and milk and repeat the 
aforesaid amount eight times, we arrive at a cake mixture call- 
ing for one pound each of sugar, shortening and eggs, but one 
pint of milk, two pounds flour and one-half ounce of baking 
powder, or an equivalent amount of soda bicarbonate with cream 
of tartar. 

Should we further desire to reduce the cost of manufacture, 



38 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

in purpose not only to reduce the selling price, but also to in- 
crease the volume of expansion to a given weight of such cake, 
we reduce one egg and, correspondingly, two ounces of short- 
ening, and this necessitates to again increase the amount of 
baking powder one-sixteenth of an ounce for each egg and two 
ounces of shortening so reduced from the original recipe, which 
in this case again would be the pound cake mixture. 

If we follow by reducing this amount four times, we have 
a recipe calling for one pound sugar, one-half pound shortening, 
four eggs, one pint milk, two pounds flour and one ounce bak- 
ing powder, or a recipe which is the general basis for loaf cake 
mixture. 

This intimates that one ounce of flour has the binding qual- 
ity for one ounce of milk, if added to a mixture. Again, one 
egg will correspond in binding quality to two ounces of short- 
ening; that is, one egg, (figuring the average weight of eggs as 
two ounces each) would correspond to two ounces of milk in 
binding power, and flour would find its own weight in shorten- 
ing, and as one egg has the binding quality of two ounces of 
flour, we may add one egg, and reduce the corresponding amount 
of flour, which, by producing a softer mixture, increases the 
quality of the product at the minimum cost of manufacture. 

Shortening, in general, (by which I refer to butter, lard, 
oils or vegetable fats) and eggs have the tendency, when prop- 
erly incorporated in a mixture, to lighten the cakes, that is why 
they are creamed together with the sugar, but the same as sugar 
itself, they have a shortening effect to enrich the cake. 

In yeast-raised cakes the binding quality of the different 
ingredients vary, and one egg, for instance, only possesses the 
binding quality for one and one-half ounces of corresponding 
material; but, on the other side, the flour will absorb and retain 
a good deal more moisture for the reason that for yeast-raised 
cakes stronger flour is used than for cakes made by the use of 
baking powders, and again during the process of fermentation 
the gluten is developed, whereas in baking powder goods the 
gluten in flour is of no value. 

It is needless to repeat here that baking powder and allied 
products are of entirely different nature and quality, and the 
comparison is not made with intention to substitute one leaven- 
ing agent for the other. 

Baking powders, ammonia carbonate, soda bicarbonate, cream 
of tartar, etc., do not add to the nutritious quality of a cake, 
but their use is tolerated by reason of their great convenience, 
and, furthermore, they are an absolute necessity for a certain 
class of cakes, but in all cases good judgment should be exer- 



GENERAL RULES 39 

cised to use the least possible quantities that will produce the 
necessary lightness or neutralize the presence of acidity. 

The amount of soda bicarbonate to be used, especially for 
molasses goods, often depends upon the water, and while the 
latter is little used in the manufacture of cakes, it is well to 
state that soft water requires less soda than if hard water is to 
be used. Hard water may be softened by the addition of a solu- 
tion of soda bicarbonate. 

Sodium chloride, generally called common salt, is very rare- 
ly used in the manufactuer of cakes, unless for molasses goods, 
etc., where the addition of a minute amount exerts a beneficial 
influence on the binding material employed; it also acts, in part, 
to neutralize the acidity of molasses, which usually is contained 
in the latter in overabundant quantities, and, therefore, does not 
interfere with the action of the soda bicarbonate. The princi- 
pal reason for using a small amount of salt is that it will stimu- 
late the capacity of the palate to recognize the flavor of the fin- 
ished product to better advantage. 

Sodium bicarbonate, commonly called baking soda, is used 
to spread and lighten the cakes, as well as for its neutralizing 
power, as in contact with acids it develops carbonic acid gas, 
thus leavening the cakes. 

Ammonia carbonate is the strongest of this class of leaven- 
ings known in the manufacture of cakes, but leaves a displeas- 
ing flavor and coarse grain if used in too large quantities; em- 
ployed in part with soda bicarbonate it usually gives very satis- 
factory results. 

If by error too much soda bicarbonate is used, the product 
will have a greenish tint and bitter taste. If such error occurs, 
it is well to add a proportion of cream of tartar or tartaric acid 
to neutralize the over-amount of soda and allow the mixture to 
rest sufficient time so one may neutralize the other. 

It is hardly necessary to refer to the flour, as every one 
connected with the baking business knows that soft flour is used 
for cakes— one containing the least gluten, and consists usually 
of the soft white winter wheat class. While winter wheat flour 
often can be bought at a lower price than spring wheat flour, 
it is not the reason for its use in cakes, but because it is better 
adapted. 



40 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

MISCELLANEOUS. 



Cleanliness IS godliness. 



Always knead butter and lard before using. 



Avoid flash heat in baking unless conditions require it. 



Ten whole eggs or 18 whites or 25 yolks equal one 
pint. 



Remember butter and sugar require a great deal of 
rubbing. 



When using some lard in place of butter entirely, use 
half lard and half butter. 



Fresh eggs placed in cold water will immediately sink, 
while bad ones will float on top. 



A few drops of lemon juice is a great help when beating 
egg whites, making them come up quickly. 



Cotton-seed oil may be substituted for lard in all cases. 
It is richer than lard, hence a less quantity must be used. 



In beating mixtures do not start too fast. A slow 
circular motion at first gradually increasing speed gives the 
best results. 



When heating an oven half an hour or more should be 
allowed to elapse after proper temperature is reached before 
baking is started. 



No baker can hope to make perfect goods who does 
not accurately weigh and measure all materials. Guess work 
keeps many bakers poor. 



A simple test for molasses is to mix a small quantity of 
soda with it. If it foams and has a sweet odor it is good, 
otherwise it is not fit for baking purposes. 



MISCELLANEOUS 41 

Copper utensils should be used with extreme care. 
When liquids, etc., are allowed, to stand in them after cooking 
poisonous chemical action takes place that is dangerous. 



When beating it should be remembered that it is abso- 
lutely necessary to keep your tools free of grease or other 
substances. It is important to beat steadily, frequently 
changing hands to vary motion. 



To test the heat of an oven throw a little corn meal 
in the center, and if it begins to smoke in 30 or 40 seconds 
the oven is ready for baking, the proper heat being about 
550 degrees Fahrenheit. The dampers should be closed when 
it reaches this point. 

In creaming always rub steadily, adding the eggs very 
gradually. 



Self-Raising Flour. 

45 lbs. Flour. 15 oz. Soda. 

ioHi oz. Tartaric Acid. 
The above must be mixed thoroughly. It should be 
sifted 3 or 4 times. 



PASTRY, JUMBLES, ETC. 



Bath Buns. 

4^2 lbs. Flour. \y 2 lbs. Raisins. 

iY 2 lbs. Butter. 9 oz. Citron. 

iY 2 lbs. Sugar. 2% lbs. Bread Dough. 

This is very popular in certain sections. Bake in steady 
heat. 



Butter Cakes. 

6 lbs. Flour. iy 2 oz. Soda. 

6 oz. Butter. 3 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

6 oz. Sugar. Milk. 

The above is for the famous "butter cakes" sold in the 
dairy restaurants in New York and other large cities. The 
milk should be added gradually to make a medium stiff dough. 
Roll out very thin — about J / 2 inch— and cut tea biscuit size. 
Dock and then bake on hot plate both sides. 



Crullers. 



iy 2 lbs. Sugar. iy 2 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

Y% lb. Butter. 6 Eggs. 

Y$ oz. Soda. 3 pts. Milk. 

6 lbs. Flour. 
A formula when ammonia is used is as follows: 2J4 lbs. 
Sugar, 24 lb. Butter; y 2 oz. Ammonia, %. oz. Soda, y 2 oz. 
Cream of Tartar, 3 pints Milk, 9 Eggs, 6% lbs. Flour. Many 
omit the soda and cream of tartar entirely, using only am- 
monia. 



44 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Cream Cakes. 
(See recipe for Eclairs.) 



Cream Rolls. 

Use ordinary puff paste a little over }i in. thick, cut into 
pieces of proper width and wash. Make hollow rolls around 
stick or conical tin tubes. Coat slightly with granulated sugar 
and bake before removing sticks or tubes. Fill with creams or 
meringue from bag. 



Cream Puffs. 

Seal in i qt. water to which i% lbs. lard has been added, 
iy 2 lbs. spring wheat flour. Let it work out well. 

Then add about 25 eggs, a few at a time. Judgment 
must be used to get the right stiffness. 

Drop them in a dusted pan with either bag or by hand 
and bake in a fairly warm oven. 



Cocoanut Kisses. 

2 lbs. Sugar. 1 qt. Egg Whites. 

5 drops Acided Acid. 

Add sugar after eggs are beaten up firm. Make kisses in 
rings through star tube. Bake cool in dusted pans. Cover 
with dessicated cocoanut. 



Currant Diamonds. 

Two and a half lbs. flour, 1 lb. sugar, 1 lb. butter or lard, 
2 eggs, y 2 pint milk, y 2 oz. ammonia, 4 oz. currants. Rub 
butter, sugar and eggs light; then add the currants; then the 
ammonia dissolved in the milk, and lastly the flour. Roll the 
dough out and cut with a fluted diamond-shaped cutter. 
Wash them off with milk, place on greased pans, and bake in 
a quick oven. 



PASTRY, JUMBLES, ETC. 45 

Cinnamon Drops. 

2 lbs. Sugar. 6 Eggs. 

9 oz. Butter. y A oz. Soda. 

ij4 pts. Molasses. % oz- Cinnamon. 

iH pts. Water. 3J4 lbs. Flour. 

Bake in a medium oven. Drop mixture on well greased 
pans with spoon. 



Poor Man's Bread 

Whip i quart and Vt. pint of egg whites fairly stiff, then 
beat into it sVa pounds xxxx powdered sugar; flavor with 
vanilla and darken with burnt sugar color, and finally add 
3^ of flour and mix until the mass is a little sunny. Fill 
into oval shallow pans that have been greased and dusted 
with flour. Allow them to dry until a crust has formed on 
top, then bake in a medium oven. When cold knock out of 
pans, not before. 



Cocoanut Kisses. 

In a bright kettle put i pound finely grated cocoanut, 
1^2 pounds powdered sugar and sufficient white of eggs to 
make a medium soft mass. Place on fire and heat until 
unable to bear the finger in it any longer, stirring con- 
stantly. Take off fire and let cool. Then add 4 ounces of 
stale pound cake crumbs and 4 ounces of flour and sufficient 
white of egg until the mass can be handled with bag and 
tube. Then lay them out on greased and dusted sheet pans 
like almond macaroons. Care must be taken when heating; 
use only pound cake crumbs, and do not let them stand and 
become crusted or they will not crack nicety. 



Charlotte Russe. 

2 oz. Gelatine. 2 qts. Cream. 

1 lb. Sugar. Vanilla. 

First dissolve gelatine, then beat up the cream well.^ Add 
the sugar, gelatine and flavor. Mix very lightly and fill in the 
regular cup made of sponge cake mixture. Less sugar may 



46 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

be used if desired. To the above may also be added 20 Whites 
of Eggs to make a different mixture. Another recipe using 
egg yolks which is quite popular is as follows: 2 oz. Gelatine, 
8 Egg Yolks, 1 lb. Sugar (powdered), 1 qt. milk, 2 qts. heavy 
cream. First soften the gelatine in cold water. After the 
yolks are thoroughly beaten add sugar and milk, stirring in 
the gelatine. Heat, but don't boil, stirring to keep smooth, 
then beat in the whipped cream and allow to cool. 



Corn Muffins. 

One and one-half pounds sugar, T /i pound lard or butter, 
9 eggs, 1 quart milk, % ounce soda, 1 pound corn meal, 2 
pounds flour, 1J/3 ounces of cream of tartar, flavor lemon. 

Take sugar and lard, rub to a cream, add the eggs, rub 
good. Now take the milk, dissolve the soda in the milk and 
mix. Take your sieve, put over the bowl, put the corn meal, 
cream of tartar and flour together, sieve through. Mix and 
bake in heat of 550 degrees F. Bake in cup cake pans, 
greased light. No icing. These cakes sell for one cent each, 
or six for five cents. 



Corn Muffins, No. 2. 
(Small Mixture.) 

Three-quarters pound sugar, J4 pound lard or butter, 3 
eggs, 1 pint milk, y 3 ounce soda, % pound < corn meal, % 
pound flour, 1 ounce cream of tartar, flavor with lemon. 

This mixture is mixed, greased and baked as Corn Muffin 
No. 1. Sold for one cent each, six for five cents. 



Doughnuts. 

6 qts. Water. 12 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

6 qts. Milk. iY 2 lbs. Lard. 

6 oz. Soda. 7^2 lbs. Sugar. 

Add to the above sufficient flour to make a good stiff 
dough. 



PASTRY, JUMBLES, ETC. 47 

French Crullers. 

i lb. Butter. i qt. Water. 

4 oz. Sugar. 2 lbs. Flour. 

28 Eggs. 
A richer cruller can be made as follows: 1 lb. Butter, 4 
oz. Sugar, iJ4 pts. Milk, 2j4 lbs. Flour, 16 Eggs. 



Eclairs. 



2 lbs. Lard. 2 lbs. Spring Wheat 

3 pts. Water. Flour. 

35 Eggs. Yz oz. Ammonia. 

The above is used both for cream cakes and all kinds of 
eclairs. It is important to remember, however, that the dough 
for eclairs must be stirrer than for cream cakes. Before 
starting the mixture it is absolutely necessary, if you desire 
good results, to have all material properly prepared and ready 
for immediate use. Eggs should be broken and ready, like- 
wise ammonia, pans, etc. 

The lard and water should be allowed to boil for a min- 
ute before adding the flour, which must be done very quickly, 
stirring thoroughly. In fact everything must be done 
quickly if you want perfect goods. Add eggs, about 2 at a 
time, and when ready add ammonia. Results depend largely 
on having the dough just right, not too thick and not too 
thin. Too much ammonia will ruin the batch. Bake in hot 
oven. 



Ginger Snaps. 

3 pts. Molasses. 4^ lbs. Sugar. 

1 y 2 pts. Water. iy 2 lbs. Lard. 

3 oz. Soda. 9% lbs. Flour. 

These are washed with water before baking. Medium 
oven. Some use ammonia and about V/ 2 lbs. of corn meal. 



Ginger Bread. 

3 pts. Molasses. ij4 oz. Soda. 

3 pts. Water. iy 2 oz. Cream of Tartar. 



48 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

2 lbs. Crumbs. 6 lbs. Flour. 

i lb. Lard. Spices. 

Have pan well greased. Ice on top. Usually sold in 
penny squares. For a better grade use 4 or 5 eggs. 



Ice Cream Cones. 

Eight oz. flour, 4 oz sugar, 1 pint whipped cream, 8 
eggs, 1 gill curacoa, pinchof salt, vanilla. These ice cream 
cones are made in special irons, which are greased and filled 
with the above batter from a handbag. They are baked on 
the gas machine. This recipe is for very fine goods, and can 
be cheapened considerably. 



Icing. 



Water Icing is made with ordinary Sugar and Water, col- 
ored and flavored as desired. 

Ornamental Icing is composed of plain Sugar beat up 
well with Egg Whites and a few drops of Lemon Juice. The 
usual proportion is to use J4 lb. sugar to every white of an 
egg used. 

Icing for cake is usually made thinner than ornamenting 
icing. For a cheap icing Gelatine is used in place of the 
eggs. Use 2 oz. Gelatine to every pint of water (warm). 
Beat up well with the sugar. 

Chocolate Icing is made with 1 lb. of Chocolate to every 
quart of water and the necessary amount of sugar. A cheaper 
Chicolate Icing is made with Cocoa and Cocoa Butter. 
Boiled Chocolate Icing is made by boiling the chocolate, 
sugar and water for about 10 minutes. 

Transparent Icing is made by boiling Pulverized Sugar 
and water together in proportions of about 2 lbs. of Sugar to 
each pint of water. When it becomes like rich cream it is 
poured hot on the cake top. Care should be taken to rub the 
sugar thoroughly against the sides of the vessel while boil- 
ing in order to mix thoroughly. 



PASTRY, JUMBLES, ETC. 49 

Soft Icing consists of Powdered Sugar sifted very fine 
and boiling water and Fruit Juice mixed. Use I lb of Sugar 
to 2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water and 2 tablespoonfuls of 
Fruit Juice. This is colored in any way desired. Spread on 
while the cake is warm. This icing is especially good for 
sponge cake, etc. 



Jelly Squares. 

(See Orange Squares.) 



Jumbles. 

3 lbs. Sugar. *4 °z. Ammonia. 

\Y 2 lbs. Butter. 3^ lbs. Flour. 

9 Eggs. Flavor. 

The above is called either Vanilla, Lemon or Cinnamon 
Jumbles, according to flavor. Frequently a little milk is used 
in the mixture and more butter. Wafer jumbles are made in 
about the same way. The formula can be varied in a dozen 
ways to suit the ideas of different bakers. 



Jumble, No. 2. 

One pound sugar, *4 ounce lard, 5 eggs, Yz pint milk, Ys 
ounce ammonia, 2 pounds flour, flavor with vanilla. 

This mixture is made, mixed and baked as Vanilla Jum- 
bles. The only difference is, it is put in jumble bag and laid 
out with star tube. Sell for one cent each, six for five cents. 



Vanilla Jumble, No. 1. 

One and one-half pounds sugar, 1Y2 pounds lard, 6 eggs, 
1 pint milk, 1 ounce powdered ammonia, 3 pounds flour, fla- 
vor with vanilla. 

Take sugar and lard, put in the bowl, mix with a cream. 
Next add the eggs, mix. Take the milk and ammonia, dis~ 



50 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

solve the ammonia in the milk and mix together. Take your 
sieve, put over the bowl, put the flour in and sieve through. 
Mix light and put in jumble bag with plain tube. Lay out on 
cleaned pans in jumble form. Bake in heat of 550 degrees 
F. Flavor with vanilla. Sell these cakes at one cent each, 
or six for five cents. 



SB 



SPECIAL JUMBLES 



BY LOUIS STERN. 



Bula. 



One pound of lard, 1 pound sugar, 6 eggs, 1 pint of 
water, 1 ounce soda, 1 quart molasses, and 4 pounds of flour. 
Put sugar and lard into the bowl and rub to a cream, then 
slowly add the eggs. Next put in the molasses and mix to- 
gether, then dissove the soda in the water and mix all to- 
gether. Lastly add 'the flour and mix very light. This is 
put in a canvas bag with a plain tube laid out on clean pans 
in form of an S. These cakes can be sold for one cent each, 
or 6 for five cents. They are baked in a slow heat of 370 
degrees F. Leave on the pan till well cooled off. If made 
right these jumbles will keep for weeks. 



Chocolate Jumble. 

This is made the same as cream jumble No. 1, with the 
addition of a half pound of bitter chocolate, which is to 
be dissolved and added to the mixture. When baked fill 
with white of egg icing. Sold for two cents each, or 3 for 
five cents. The jumbles are very delicious, but are made 
very little in this country. 



SPECIAL JUMBLES 51 

Chocolate Cream Jumble. 

Eight and one-half pounds of good cake flour, 2 pounds 
of lard or butter, 5 pounds of sugar, (in powdered form), 
20 eggs, 1 quart of milk, 1 ounce of soda, 1Y2 ounces am- 
monia and 1 pound of dissolved chocolate. Put sugar and 
lard in bowl and rub to a cream. Slowly add the eggs, two 
or three at a time, then add the milk. Dissolve soda and am- 
monia in milk and mix together. Then take the chocolate, dis- 
solve it on the stove and add to the mixture. Finally add the 
flour and mix lightly. Baked in a heat of 450 degrees F. 
When baked, dried and cooled, take some marshmallow and put 
some of it between two jumbles, thus causing them to stick to- 
gether; then fill the hole in the center on one side of the jumble 
with chocolate icing, and the other side with cream or white of 
tgg icing. Sold for three cents each, or 2 for five cents. 



Curna Jumble. 

Five pounds granulated sugar, 3 pounds lard or butter, 
12 eggs, and 1Y2 ounces ammonia, 11Y2 pounds flour, and 
enough milk to make a stiff dough. Take sugar and lard 
and break up the same as for pie crust, then slowly add the 
eggs; do not cream it; put in about 1 quart milk and dis- 
solve the ammonia in it. Lastly add the flour. This mix- 
ture is laid out with canvas bag and star tube on dusted pans 
in the shape of half moons. When baked and cool and dry 
stick two together by putting jelly between them. These 
jumbles are baked in a heat of 370 degrees F., and are sold 
for one cent each or 6 for five cents. 



Curba Jumble. 

One pound lard, 1Y2 pounds sugar, 6 whites of eggs, Yz 
ounce soda, Yz ounce cream tartar, ij4 pounds flour and a 
little vanilla. Mix light. Take the sugar and the lard and 
rub to a cream, then beat up the white of eggs to a stiff 
snow and add the soda which must be powdered fine to the 
white of eggs. Next add the flour and cream of tartar, mix- 
ing lightly. Put in canvas bag and star tube. Lay out on 
dusted pans, wash over with milk and drop chopped nuts and 
almonds on top. Then turn the pan upside down, so the 



52 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

pieces of nuts will fall off, and put in oven to bake in heat 
of 400 degrees F. When baked, and while still hot, put a 
little water icing on top. Sold at one cent each, or 6 for 
five cents. 



Cream Jumble. 

Seventeen pounds of flour, 4 pounds of lard or butter, 
10 pounds of granulated sugar, 3 pints of eggs, 2 quarts of 
milk, 1% ounces soda, 2 l / 2 ounces of ammonia. Put butter 
or lard in bowl with the sugar, break up like pie crust, slowly- 
adding the eggs, little at the time, till used up. Dissolve 
soda and ammonia in the milk and mix together. Finally 
add the flour, but do not mix heavy, but very light. These 
cakes must be laid out on dusted pans with the jumble ap- 
paratus, because this mixture is too hard to be forced out 
by the ha$d and bag system. To be baked in a hot oven 
in a heat of 490 or 500 degrees F. When baked and cooled 
off, fill the center with different kinds of jams or jellies. 
This is one of the best jumbles known, and one of the 
best sellers in France and other countries. Sold at two 
cents each, or 3 for five cents. 



Cream Jumble No. 2. 

Nine pounds of flour, 2 l / 2 pounds of lard or butter, 5 
pounds granulated sugar, 10 to 15 drops of lemon flavoring, 
18 to 20 eggs (according to the size of the eggs); 1 quart 
of sour milk, 1 ounce soda, ij4 ounces ammonia. This is 
mixed in the same way and baked in the same heat as the 
above jumble. When baked fill with jellies or creams and 
put a little chocolate coating (not too much), on top. Sold 
for two cents each, or 3 for five cents. 



Cocoanut Jumble No. 1. 

One and one-half pounds sugar, 1 pound lard or butter, 
5 whites of eggs, orange flavoring, 1-3 ounce soda, 2-3 ounce 
cream of tartar, and ij4 pouncte-strong spring patent flour. 
Mix and bake same as above cocoanut jumble, only before 
putting in oven take a handful of shredded cocoanut and drop 
on top. One cent each. 



SPECIAL JUMBLES. 63 

Cocoanut Jumble No, 2, 

One pound shredded cocoanut. i}£ pounds granulated 
sugar, 5 whites of eggs y 3 whole eggs, 1 pound lard or butter, 
1-6 ounce soda, 1-3 ounce cream of tartar, some lemon flavor, 
and 1 24 pounds flour. Rub sugar and lard to a cream, then 
slowly add the eggs. Next add the whites of 5 eggs beaten 
to a stiff snow. Powder the soda good and fine and add to 
the mixture with a little lemon flavor, and mix. Now add 
the cocoanut, but see that it is chopped good and fine or it 
will not come through the star tube. Lay out on clean pans 
in regular jumble form. Bake in heat of 420 degrees F. 
Sold for one cent, or 6 for five cents. 



Plain Jumbles. 

Make the same as the above cocoanut jumble and mix and 
bake in like manner, only omit the sprinkling of cocoanut over 
the jumbles. Sold for one cent or 6 for five cents. 



La Cream Jumble. 

One and one-half pounds sugar, 1 pound lard, 6 whites 
of eggs, Yz ounce soda, 2 /$ ounce cream of tartar, % pound 
cocoanut, 13/2 pounds of flour and a litle flavoring. Rub 
sugar and lard to a cream, slowly add the eggs and mix to- 
gether. Next add the flour and cream of tartar. Mix lightly. 
Put in canvas bag and w r ith star tube lay out on dusted pans 
in the regular jumble form. Sprinkle some cocoanut on top 
and then turn pans upside down to allow the cocoanut to 
drop off. Baked in a heat of 420 degrees F. Sold every- 
where for one cent, or 6 for five cents. These cakes will 
keep from four to five weeks without getting hard. 



Sa Voy Jumble. 

Two pounds of sugar, 1 pound lard or butter, 6 eggs, 
1-6 ounce ammonia, 2^4 pounds flour, and some lemon flavor. 
Put sugar and lard in the bow T l and break up like pie crust. 
Next add the eggs, a few at a time. Be careful not to cream 



54 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

it. Take the ammonia with a few drops of lemon flavor and 
make a smooth paste. Mix lightly. Put in canvas bag and 
with star tube lay out on dusted pans. Put in oven to bake 
in a heat of 400 degrees F. When baked and while still hot 
put a little chocolate icing on top. Sold at one cent each, or 
6 for five cents. These cakes will keep moist for six or 
seven weeks, without getting mouldy. The longer they lay 
the better they taste and the softer they keep. 



Sa Voy Jumble No. 2. 

One and one-half pounds brown sugar, 7 ounces of lard 
or butter, 8 eggs, y$ ounce soda, 2 /z ounce cream of tartar, 
2 pounds of cake flour. Put sugar, lard and eggs into the 
bowl together and mix very lightly to a smooth paste. Next 
add the soda with a little mace. Mix together. Finally add 
the flour and cream of tartar. Lay out with canvas bag and 
plain tube on clean pan without dusting. Sprinkle some cin- 
namon or chopped almonds on top, then turn pan upside 
down, so the unused pieces of almond will drop off again. 
Bake in same heat as Sa Voy No. 1. 



Vanilla Jumble No. 1. 

Five pounds of powdered sugar, 4^ pounds lard or but- 
ter, 18 eggs, some vanilla flavoring, 2-3 ounce ammonia, 7J4 
pounds of flour. Break sugar and lard up, same as for pie 
crust, slowly adding the eggs, few at a time, till used up. 
Next add the flavoring, powder the ammonia good and fine 
and mix together. Lastly add the flour. These jumbles must 
be pounded out with a jumble apparatus, because the dough 
is too hard to be forced out with bag and star tube. Baked 
in heat of 420 degrees F. When baked, and while still hot, wash 
over with hot water icing. One cent each, or 6 for five 
cents. 

Vanilla Jumble No. 2. 

One and one-half pounds of sugar, 1^ pounds butter or 
lard, 8 eggs, 1 ounce ammonia, 1 pint of milk and 3 pounds 
of flour. Mix and bake the same as the above, only use plain 
tube instead of star. 



CAKES, PASTRY, ETC. 55 

Marshmallow Filling. 

(See Icing.) 



Mince Meat. 

(See Pie Baking.) 



Muffins. 
(See Sweet Corn Muffins.) 



Meringue Pie. 
(See Pies.) 



Meringue. 

2 lbs. Sugar. i qt. Egg Whites. 

2 drops Acided Acid. 

Beat whites steadily, changing hands frequently, until 
stiff. Then add about 2 tablespoonfuls of Sugar and beat 
again, adding 2 more spoonfuls of Sugar in a few minutes, 
after which beat until thoroughly stiff. Now add balance of 
sugar. A few drops of Lemon Juice will make the egg whites 
come up quickly. Whites that have been allowed to stand 24 
hours come up better than when freshly opened. 



Macaroons. 

iy 2 lbs. Almond Paste. 2 lbs. Sugar. 

V/2 oz. Corn Meal. 

To the above should be added enough whites of eggs to 
get a good smooth mixture. Use only high-grade almond 
paste. 



Marshmallow Icing and Filling. 

oz. Gelatine. 10 lbs. Powdered Sugar, 

qts. Water. W2 lbs. Glucose. 

Yz. oz. Cream of Tartar. 



56 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

First soak the gelatine lin^ the water, heating slightly to 
dissolve. Beat thoroughly with sugar in beating machine, 
and when half ready add cream of tartar and flavor. The 
glucose may be omitted if desired. 



Napoleons. 

Use regular puff paste rolled into thin sheets. Cover with 
vanilla cream and build up with other sheets. Cover top 
with water icing and cut into oblong squares. 



Neapolitan Cake. 

Neapolitan cake is made with regular sponge cake mix- 
ture, differently colored, pink, yellow, chocolate, etc. Bake 
in thin sheets and proceed as with layer cake, using jelly and 
cocoanut between layers. It is usually iced on top with pink 
and white stripe effect. 



Orange Squares. 

These are made with ordinary Sponge Cake. Ice, and 
place slice of Orange on top. More yolks or coloring is put 
in this cake to give the deep orange color. These goods 
may be made up in the form of Diamonds, Crescents, etc., 
jellies or fruits of all kinds may be substituted for the orange. 
White squares are made with Lady Cake composed of two 
layers, with Vanilla Cream between and icing on top. 



Orange Pastry Tart. 

Roll out a round bottom of good puff paste dough, not 
too thin. Wash the edge with egg and place a strip of the 
puff paste 1^2 inches wide around the edge of the bottom. 
Decorate this strip with small stars, hearts, crescents, or 
any small fancy cutter you may have, and from the puff 
paste wash all with egg and bake well, but take care not to 
brown the center too much. As soon as baked ice the edge 



CAKES, PASTRY, ETC. 57 

with soft lemon-flavored icing or fondant, and when cold 
fill the tart with cream filling given below, and decorate the 
top with fruit ielly, candied orange slices and whipped cream. 
Orange Cream for Filling. — H lb. of sugar, y 2 pt. white 
wine, 6 yolks, the rind and juice of i^ oranges, % oz. gela- 
tine that has been softened in a little warm water, and if 
not tart enough add the juice of i lemon. Boil this, stirring 
constantly until slightly thick; remove from fire, and when 
cooled a little add the snow of 4 whites of egg carefully. In 
the egg white beat in a handful of sugar to prevent coagula- 
tion when mixing it into the warm cream filling. Finish as 
stated above. 



Patty Shells. 

Patty Shells are made with ordinary puff paste. Cut out 
about the size of sugar cakes, cutting small hole in one. Wash 
over the other with water or eggs. Place the one with hole 
on top and bake. 



Pumpernickel. 

4 lbs. Stale Cake (pow- 6 lbs. Flour. 

dered). 24 Eggs. 

4 lbs. Sugar. Yz oz. Ammonia. 

Spices. 
These should be washed over with eggs before baking. 



Patties. 



Patties or tarts are made with purl paste rolled thin, 
which forms a lining for pans filled with any kind of fruit. 
These can be made in endless varieties. A good recipe for the 
pastry is as follows: iy 2 lbs. Flour, V/2. lbs. Butter (hard), 2 
Eggs, 1 y 2 oz. Baking Powder, Salt and Ice Water. Medium 
dough, mixed lightly and rolled four or five times at intervals 
of about 15 minutes. This can be made very quickly. 



58 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Puff Paste for Patty Shells. 

Mix I lb. spring wheat flour, 2 oz. bread dough, 2 oz. 
butter, 1 yolk of egg, J /i pint cold water, to a smooth dough. 
The more it is worked the better. Let lay a little while to 
recover. In the meantime wash 14 oz. of butter in cold 
water, press all the water out. Now roll out the dough % 
inch thick into as perfect square as possible. Place in the 
14 oz. of butter formed in a square in the center, turn the 
dough over the butter from all sides, roll 1 inch thick and 
turn over again, then roll three times more in the same man- 
ner, but give fifteen minutes' time between each roll. When 
rolling the paste always brush off the flour. Cut proper size 
and bake in hot oven. If the shells jump too much or topple 
over, the dough must be rolled some more. 

If too close and not enough spring, it has been rolled too 
much. All depends upon the quality of the butter. 



Puff Paste. 

V/ 2 lbs. Flour. 54 pt. Water. 

2 Egg Yolks. iy 2 lbs. Butter. 

This should be rolled at least 4 times, setting aside 15 
minutes between each roll. 



Puff Paste. 

y 2 pt. Water. 1 lb. Flour. 

1 lb. Butter. 
If desired, a richer mixture is made by adding eggs and 
a little rum. 



Pine Apple Tarts. 

While apples are at their best, their use in fine cake 
bakeries can be made manifold and very tasty. A few deli- 
cacies in this line are herewith offered: 

No. 1.— Half bake a bottom, in a crimped straight flanged 
pan or in a tin ring, some fine sugar dough. When cool 
spread this with some apricot marmalade, and upon it slices 



CAKES, PASTRY, ETC. 53 

of apples of as equal size as possible; sprinkle over the slices 
some finely cut blanched almonds, a few washed currants, 
sugar and cinnamon, and bake until apples are just soft, but 
not mushy; then pour over all some very light colored apple 
jelly. 

No. 2. — As above, half bake a bottom of sugar dough. 
When cool place apple slices in the bottom and bake them 
until soft. Now beat 6 oz. sugar, 6 egg yolks very light, and 
add 6 oz. ground stale almond macaroons. Then beat up half 
pint heavy cream and add it to the beaten eggs. Pour this 
over the apples and again bake it lightly. When cool dust 
with sugar or ice with thin vanilla flavored foudant. 

No. 3. — Bake in deep straight edge pan a bottom of 
sugar dough. On a sheet pan bake a net formed by strips 
of the sugar dough crossing each other diagonally so as to 
form diamond-shaped openings. The net must be the same 
size as the bottom, and both should be fairly well baked. 
Partially fill the bottom with rice which has been boiled soft 
in milk, adding a little vanilla. Upon this rice place apple 
slices that have been boiled soft in sugar syrup. Now place 
the network over the apples, dust with sugar, and fill out the 
diamonds with pale pink colored foudant that have been flavored 
with punch extract. 

Sugar Dough for Above.— One-half lb. sugar, ]/ 2 lb. but- 
ter, 10 oz. flour, 3 eggs; some would add % finely chopped 
almonds to the dough also. 



Sponge Biscuit. 

6 lbs. Sugar. 3 oz. Soda. 

66 Eggs. 3 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

9 lbs. Flour. Flavor. 

These goods are usually iced on the bottom and sold at 
cent each. 



Sweet Corn Muffins. 

2J4 lbs. Sugar. 2 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

15 oz. Butter. 3 pts. Milk. 

12 Eggs. iVi lbs. Corn Meal. 

1 oz. Soda. 3 lbs. Flour. 



60 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Lard may be substituted for the butter and more corn 
meal used in place of the flour. 



Scones. 



6 lbs. Flour. 3 oz. Soda. 

l l / 2 lbs. Butter. 6 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

V/2 lbs. Sugar. 2 pts. Milk. 

These are moulded round, Yi inch thick and cut cross- 
ways. The dough should be handled quickly though thor- 
oughly worked. Wash with eggs and after half an hour bake 
in hot oven. 



White Squares. 

(See Orange Squares.) 



Tea Biscuits. 

5 lbs. Flour. 2 oz. Cream of Tartar. 

Y A lb. Lard. 3 pts. Milk. 

Y& lb. Butter. Ys lb. Sugar. 

1 oz. Soda. 

Add a little ammonia and salt, let mixture stand for a 
few minutes and bake in hot oven. 



Vienna Biscuits. 

— lbs. Flour. Y A lb. Sugar. 

Yi lb. Butter. 4 Eggs. 

Yz oz. Powder. Milk. 

Rub the butter, sugar and powder well into the flour on 
the board, make a bay, break in the eggs, and wet into a 
pliable dough with milk. Roll down in a sheet and cut out 
on slips about 6 inches wide; then spread on the following 
mixture. Cut up in fingers about 1Y2 inches wide, and set 
them on a flat tin about 1 inch apart, lifting them with a 
palette knife. When you have filled the tin, bake in a 
moderate oven. 



JAMS AND JELLIES 



BY LOUIS STERN 



Jellies and jams are used in every bakeshop where cakes 
and tarts are baked, such as jelly roll, diamonds and jelly 
squares, layer cakes, jelly tarts, etc. No jelly should be put 
on cakes or tarts to be baked in the oven, for it will cook 
and run all over the cake. It will make the cake look dirty 
and will soak into the cake, make it soft and heavy. 

Tarts are made by lining small patty pans with puff 
paste, rolled out thin and rilled with different kinds of jams 
or stewed fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries, cherries 
or peaches. 

Bakers that want a cheap tart usually line small patty 
pans with puff paste and set away to dry for about one-half 
hour and bake in medium oven. When baked they are filled 
with jelly. 



Dark Currant Jelly. 

For this recipe $200 was paid to Harry DeLuke, the 
French pastry baker, who brought it to America in the year 
1907. 

Take 2 pounds of gelatine. Put on stove with 23 quarts 
of water. When the water begins to boil put in 64 pounds 
of the best XXXX powdered sugar, J4 ounce of tartaric 
acid and 1 pint of currant juice. Let it boil on the stove for 
ten minutes. In the meantime get your pails ready. Rub 
them on the inside with rum. When the jelly is boiled 
enough, pour into the pails. Leave them open for one day, 
then take thick paper soaked in rum, put over the top of 
jelly and close down tight. You can color this jelly as you 



62 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

like, make it dark currant jelly, red currant jelly or any 
other color you like by using artificial colors. This jelly is 
made so good and costs so little that it can be sold at a 
profit. It will keep for years. 



Red Currant Jelly. 

Take 2 ounces gelatine. Dissolve in I pint cold water, 
I pint rum, I quart boiling water, 2 pounds granulated sugar 
and two teaspoonfuls of currant juice. Put on stove, let 
boil ten minutes and put in pails for use as needed. 



Colebra Cherry Jam. 

Weigh 10 pounds of fine ripe cherries, cleaned from stem 
and pit; put into kettle over the fire with 10 pounds of gran- 
ulated sugar, 2 ounces corn starch, let boil 20 minutes until 
jam begins to thicken. When done store away same as other 
jams. 



Peach and Apple Jam. 

Take 5 pounds of apples and 5 pounds of peaches. Cut 
good and fine. Put on stove in kettle, with 11 pounds of 
granulated sugar. Let boil 10 minutes and add 3 ounces 
corn starch, 1-6 ounce tartaric acid. Let boil 10 minutes 
more and it will be ready for use. This jam is very good and 
is used in all hotels and bakeshops. It is the only genuine 
apple and peach jam. 



Raisin Jam. 

Take 8 pounds of raisins, put in kettle on fire, and 7^ 
pounds granulated sugar. Let boil 20 minutes and add four 
ounces corn starch and J4 ounce tartaric acid. This jam is 
usually stored away in glass jars. 



Currant Jam. 

Bring 20 pounds of currants to a boil, with 21 pounds 
of fine powdered sugar and V 2 pound of corn starch. Let 



JAMS AND JELLIES 63 

boil 25 to 30 minutes. Keep stirring till it thickens. When 
done put in glass jars covered tight. This jam will keep 
for a year if directions are followed correctly. 



Huckleberry Jam. 

Bring to a boil 18 pounds of huckleberries, 20 pounds 
of XXXX powdered sugar, 4 ounces of corn starch. Boil 
15 minutes. Keep stirring until thick and when done place 
in glass jars for future use. 



French Orange Jelly. 

Take 4 ounces gelatine, soak into 2 quarts of lukewarm 
water for one and one-half hours, then add 2% quarts of 
boiling water and 3 pounds of granulated sugar, 2 teaspoon- 
fuls of orange extract. Put on stove and let boil five to ten 
minutes. When done put in wooden pails. Put thick paper 
soaked in rum over the jelly. Put away for future use. 



The Original Peach Jelly. 

Take \Y 2 ounces of gelatine. Dissolve in ^ pint of cold 
water, add ij4 pounds of granulated sugar. Next add %. 
pint of boiling water. Put on stove and let come to a boil 
10 minutes. Flavor with y 2 pint mashed peaches. Put in 
pail and store away. 



Raspberry Jelly. 

Take, say, 6 quarts of ripe raspberries. Put in kettle 
over fire so the juice will flow for 15 minutes. Strain through 
thin cloth and let stand for five minutes, so it will set. Then 
measure the juice. To every pint of juice add 1 pound of 
sugar, and to every pound of sugar add y 2 ounce corn starch. 
Put on stove to boil for 10 minutes. 



Strawberry Jelly. 

Take 1 ounce of gelatine. Dissolve in y 2 pint of lukewarm 
water. Add y 2 pint of cherry wine, y 2 quart of boiling water, 
iY 2 pounds of granulated sugar and 2 ounces of strawberry 
juice. Then put on stove to boil 15 minutes. Pour in pail and 
put in cool place for future use. 



® 



Part II 



Bread Making 



BREAD-MAKING 



THE TECHNOLOGY OF BREAD-MAKING 



Trades of every description have during recent years 
advanced by leaps and bounds toward betterment and 
improvement. 

Inventions and discoveries of most important nature and 
of stupendous results have from time to time amazed the 
human mind and thought. 

Hand in hand with inventions and mechanical devices 
used in the trades are step by step reaching greater perfec- 
tion, simplifying and affording more accurate results of attain- 
ing standards of excellence in finished products. 

Professor Liebig once said the baking industry is one in 
which new methods and inventions would be very difficult 
of introduction, and possibly in his time he may have been 
right. 

The reason therefore may be attributed to the disinclina- 
tion of the baker of that time to break away from fixed 
habits, partially, as well as lack of interest manifested by 
the general public in the production of a commodity so neces- 
sary to human sustenance. 

But all this has been changed. During the last twenty 
years the progress made in the baking industry in mechani- 
cal contrivances, newer practical method of hydrating 
doughs, and as well as the great advance made in the study 



68 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

of fermentation, have assumed such vast proportions so as to 
place this craft on equal footing with any other trade as 
regards progressiveness. 

The watchword for the future then is "more progress/' 
"more convenience,'' "more perfection." 

With this idea in mind, these series of talks have been 
undertaken, hoping that they may impress the baker as to 
his responsibilities, and that they might stimulate in him a 
desire to acquire a greater and more detailed knowledge 
of the technical points connected with his trade. The bakery 
of to-day supplies man with that important foodstuff, 
"Bread," rightfully called "The staff of life." 

What other trade is there in existence that can boast of 
any higher ideal than this? 

Pre-eminently, then, the desire should be instilled in 
every baker to equip himself with the knowledge of how to 
bring his product to such a state of perfection so that it will 
absolutely measure up to the standard of its title, The Staff 
of Life. 

There are various branches of baking. Bread, cake, 
pastry and cracker baking. In these talks bread and the 
materials entering into bread-making only will be discussed. 



Raw Materials for the Bread Baker. 

In the bread baking the principal materials used are flour, 
water, yeast, salt, milk, oil, lard, sugar and yeast foods. 



I# — Flour and Milling. 

A. The moisture of Hour. Into a glass retort place 
some flour, taken at random from the stock on hand. Attach 
to the neck of the retort a glass flask, seeing to it that the 
connection is airtight (Fig. i). Heat the flour over a bunson 
burner gently until brown. Moisture will soon show itself, 
accumulating at the colder portions of the flask. The neck 
of the retort should be kept cool with wet cloths. In this 
manner all the water contained in the flour will be found in 
the flask. 

Ordinary dry Hour contains from 8 to 18 per cent of moist- 
ure, and averages 13 per cent. 

B. Gluten contents of Hour.— Knead some wheat flour with 



TECHNOLOGY OF BREAD MAKING 



69 



water into a dough. Lay it aside under cover for fifteen 
minutes; then place it in a very fine sieve and let a stream of 
water flow over it, working the dough all the time, until the 
draining becomes clear, which should be retained for further 
testing. 

There will remain on the sieve a yellowish gray tough 
mass. 

This is the gluten which imparts strength to the flour. 
Good sound wheat Hour contains 10 to 12 per cent, of gluten. 

The gluten of wheat flour swells considerably in water, but 
is not soluble 

In the dry state it is horny and brittle. 

When moist it soon ferments and quickly putrifies. 




Fig. 1. 



Gluten is classified as an albuminoid, but is not soluble 
in either a weak or concentrated acetic acid solution. When 
boiled in a soda solution becomes partially soluble. 

On account of this characteristic it is closely allied to 
those albuminoids known as fibrin, which is found in large 
proportions in animal blood. In contrast to blood-fibrin 
gluten may be said to be vegetable-fibrin. 

The gluten of wheat flour is not a simple body, there- 
fore not an element, but is composed of four varieties of 
albuminoids: vegetable albumin, vegetable casein, vegetable 
fibrin and gluten itself. 



70 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

A marked difference exists in the gluten of rye flour. It 
is difficult to wash it out. It forms a sticky gray mass and 
is composed of three varieties of albuminoids — vegetable al- 
bumin, vegetable casein and vegetable fibrin. Gluten itself is 
missing. 

These three varieties of albuminoids are contained in much 
greater proportion than in wheat flour, but the total albuminous 
matter in both wheat and rye flour are contained in about equal 
proportions. 

C. The starches of Hour. The wash water which has 
been preserved from the gluten washing test will at first 
appear to be milky, but gradually becomes clarified. On 
the bottom of dish the starch which has come away from the 
flour with the wash water will be precipitated as a fine white 
powder. 

The proportion of starch in both wheat and rye Hour is 
almost equal The average is 64 per cent. Fine or soft flour 
contains more starch than hard or coarse flour. 

Properties of starch. Take a small quantity of the starch 
previously obtained from the flour and mix it with water until 
just milky. Place a drop of the starch water on a clean 
microscopic slide and put a cover glass over it and gently press 
it down. In placing the prepared slide under the microscope 
the starch cells are seen to be fairly round or slightly oval, 
of various sizes (Fig. 2). A little off the center a bitum is 
observed. 

The "bitum" is a sort of nucleus or spot which is the 
center around which the concentric rings of starch are 
arranged. 

If by chance some of the starch properties be resting on 
their narrow surface they will appear elongated. Each starch 
particle represents a cell. The interior of the cell contains the 
starch proper, and is surrounded by an external coating of very 
delicate fibrin or cellulose. Old samples of flour the starch 
shows cracks and fissures. 

The starch of rye flour is but slightly different (Fig. 3), 
and is difficult to tell it apart from wheat starch. The particles 
of sound rye starch are a trifle larger. 

The starch of potatoes (Fig. 4) has a peculiar pear- 
shaped formation with very distinct bitum and concentric 
rings. 

The properties of the starches given should enable the 
baker or student with the aid of the microscope to detect any 
foreign starch which may have been added to flour as an 
adulterant. 



TECHNOLOGY OF BREAD MAKING 



71 



Mix a little starch with water and divide the mixture 
equally in two beakers. 

Heat one portion to the boiling point; the starch then 




Fig. 2. 








Fig. 3.. 



Fig. 4. 



forms with the water, a thick, gelatinous, somewhat semi-clear 
liquid. The boiling causes the interior of the cell to swell, 
thereby bursting the cellulose envelopes. 



72 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

The structure of the starch cell has been completely dis- 
rupted. The starch becomes gelatinized. 

In the other beaker after a little while the raw starch 
precipitates. It has completely separated itself in its original 
form from the water. 

Upon stirring the contents of the beaker violently the 
starch grains do not lose their original character, but simply 
remain suspended for a time in the water. 

When baking bread the gelatinization of the starch does 
not take place, because the albuminoids of the flour regulated 
by the heat envelopes the liberated starch after its cellulose 
cavern has become disrupted, and in consequence prohibits 
the gelatinization of the starch. 

Dilute some of gelatinized starch with water, pour some 
of it into a test tube and add a drop of tincture of iodine; 
the cold solution will at once turn a deep blue. Heat the 
liquid gently to boiling point; the blue coloring will gradu- 
ally disappear; upon cooling the liquid it again turns blue. 

The action of tincture of iodine at low temperature is 
so intensive that the smallest particles of starch contained 
in any substance can be detected by its use. By means of 
tincture of iodine starch adulteration in compressed yeasts 
may be detected. 

Water poured on a lump of starch is rapidly absorbed. 
Starch is very hydroscopic, that is, absorbs moisture readily, 
and furthermore, retains the absorbed moisture tenaciously. 
Hence flour will absorb moisture from the atmosphere. A 
high percentage of moisture in flour is conducive of putrify- 
ing of the gluten and albumin of the flour, rendering the flour 
unfit for use. 

Into a small pan, which has been lightly greased, to 
prevent sticking, heat while constantly stirring some starch 
flour. It will turn brown; that is, it has been converted 
into dextrin. Pure dextrin is soluble in water and is largely 
used as a substitute for gum arabic. The same conversion 
occurs in bread, as the starch in the exterior of the loaf is 
changed into dextrin by the high temperature of the oven 
and forms the crust of the loaf. 

Constituents of starch. Starch is composed of the three 
elements — Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. The composition 
of starch is the same as sugar. It contains the same 
proportions of hydrogen and oxygen as is contained in water, 
namely, in proportions of 2-1 (H o 0). Therefore starch is a 
hydrate, and as these water-forming elements are combined 
with carbon it is called carbohydrate. 



TECHNOLOGY OF BREAD MAKING 73 

To this group of bodies, besides starch, dextrin, all kinds 
of sugar and cellulose are classified. 

D. Albumen contents of Hour. In a flask place 20 oz. 
of wheat flour and saturate with 100 oz. of cold water; shake 
up vigorously several times during one-half hour. Then let 
the flask stand for some time, after which pour the clear 
liquid obtained carefully into a filter paper arranged in a 
funnel. 

This clear filtrate is placed in a beaker and heated in a 
water bath to the boiling point. The clear filtrate will become 
turbid flocculent. These flakes are caused by a substance 
which is soluble in cold water and which evaporates upon 
being heated. This substance is albumin. The albumin of 
flour is of the same composition as the white of an egg, and 
is classified under the albuminoids. Wheat flour contains 1.5 
per cent, of albumin. 

E. Extractive matter of Hour. After concluding above 
experiment, filter the coagulated mixture. Place the clear 
filtrate in an evaporating dish and drive off the moisture by 
placing the dish in a steam bath. After some time the water 
will have been driven off, leaving a solid residue in the dish. 
This residue contains sugar, dextrin, a gum-like substance, 
and a small quantity of mineral salts, principally potassium 
phosphate. 

Albuminous substances all contain the four elements — 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, a trace of sulphur, 
and some contain phosphor. 

The difference between these substances and the carbo- 
hydrates is that they contain nitrogen. They have also re- 
ceived the name proteids, frequently called flesh formers, on 
account of their nutritive properties. 

Sugar, dextrin and gum carbohydrates that can be ex- 
tracted with water. 

F. Fat contents of Hour. Shake ^ vigorously for some 
time 10 ounces of rye or wheat flour with 40 ounces of ether, 
to which has been added 40 ounces of pure alcohol. Heat 
the mixture gently to 104 degrees^ F., and fat globules 
will be seen on the surface of the fluid. This is the fat con- 
tained in flour. Rye flour contains 2 per cent., wheat flour 1 
per cent, of fat. 

G. Cellulose in Hour. Flour contains more or less fibrin. 
In order to separate it from the flour, the extractive matters 
of the flour are washed in consecutive order with water, 
ether and alcohol, the residue is then boiled in dilute sul- 
phuric acid. The fibrin obtained is then washed and dried- 
In appearance it looks like wood fiber. This substance is 



74 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

contained also in the gluten and in the envelopes of the starch 
cells. It is insoluble in water, dilute acids or alkaline. It is 
indigestible and has no value as a food. 

H. Ash of Hour. Take a little flour and spread it on a 
platinum dish and heat over a bunson burner. Continue the 
heating until nothing remains but a grayish white powder. This 
is the ash or mineral part of the flour. 

These mineral substances enter into the flour through ab- 
sorption from the earth by the roots of the wheat grass. 

The ash of flour is mostly composed of phosphates, and 
are of great importance because they are bone-forming and 
help to build up the framework of the human body. 



The Average of Analysis. 

Separating the various constituents of flour is called the 
analyzation of flour. If in a different quantity of flour the 
amount of each component part is determined it is called quan- 
titative analysis. The total amount of all constituents is always 
figured at ioo, in order to give percentage of each constituent 
contained. Wheat flour contains 13.37 per cent, of water. It 
means that 100 oz. of flour contains 13.37 per cent, of water. 
Therefore 100 lbs. of flour contains 13.37 lbs. of water. The 
same applies to the starch item, 100 oz. of flour contains 69.30 
per cent, of starch. 

The total amount of each constituent of several analyses 
added together, divided by the sum total of the analyses made, 
will give the average amount of each constituent contained in 
the flour. These analyses must be made very accurate in order 
that the results obtained may be reliable. 

The following table, according to R. von Wagner, gives 
averages, subdividing the albuminoids into albumen, gliadin, 
vegetable casein, cellulose and gluten: 



-3 



FLOUR. £ 



<u o 



><u rj<u r rta> 3 <u .? J< a> -m <u p^<u <2 <u 

> o, < a, fe £. c/2 e. OP o, c/i a fepL, <a 

Winter wheat 13.37 10.21 0.94 2.35 3.06 69.30 0.29 0.48 

Spring wheat 12.81 12.06 1.36 1.86 4.09 65.88 0.89 0.96 

Rye 13.71 11.52 2.08 3.89 7.16 58.61 1.59 1.44 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 75 



FLOUR. 


-M 


.Sc 


«2 


3 c 


<u -J 
22 C 




c 


c 


4-* 


c 






1° 


.5 & 
.2u 




5 « 
o ° 

•7? *-> 


<u u 
3 v- 




<u 


o 






£& 


12 flJ 
< 6. 


3 8. 






5& 


5 « 

c/3 a 






heat flour. 


15.54 


1.34 


1.76 


0.37 


5.19 


3.50 


2.33 


6.25 


1.07 


63.64 


e 


14.60 


1.56 


2.92 


0.90 


7.36 





3.46 


4.10 


1.80 


64.28 



SB 



YEAST AND FERMENTS 



Mix some flour into a dough and bake it. The result will 
be a coarse, tough, indigestible cracker. 

The flour and water product possesses keeping qualities, 
but can only be used as a food when soaked in a fluid. 

A baked product if used as a nutriment must possess light- 
ness and porosity and be so constituted that it can be easily 
digested. 

For this reason yeast is required in bread making. 



Yeast 



A Gas Test. — Dissolve in a flask 2 ounces of syrup or 
honey in a pint of water at 140 degrees F., and add one-sixth 
of an ounce of compressed yeast, which has been broken 
up and dissolved in a part of the saccharine infusion. Seal 
the flask with a perforated rubber cork, pass a bent glass tube 
through the perforation and attach a piece of rubber hose 
to the glass tubing. In fifteen or twenty minutes small 
bubbles will be seen rising to the surface of the fluid, which 
will continually increase in number, until the surface is cov- 
ered with a froth formation, somewhat like the head of a 
cauliflower. 



76 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

The fluid is fermenting. — After I to i% hours the froth 
forming gradually ceases and finally drops. 

During fermentation lead the rubber hose attached to 
the generating flask into a smaller flask half filled with water. 
You will notice bubbles oozing from the mouth of the hose 
through the water. Then at once make a test by holding a 
lighted match into the small flask. The match will burn 
readily, just as it would in the air. After ten or fifteen 
minutes repeat this procedure and the burning match will be 
extinguished at once, even to the glimmer. 

During the first test atmospheric air only was contained 
in the small flask. It required a little time for the gas of 
the generating flask to displace the atmospheric air, as a 
result of which the lighted match went out at the second 
test. 

Another peculiar phenomenon is noticeable in connec- 
tion with this test. On top of the water in the open flask 
the developed gas remains stationary, but can be dispersed 
by an air current, either created by blowing or by waving 
the hand over the opening of the bottle. 

If we then pour some clear lime water into another small 
bottle and allow some of the gas from the generating flask 
by means of the rubber tubing to flow into the same, we will 
find that, after withdrawing the hose, closing the bottle with 
the thumb and slightly shaking the contents, the lime water 
turns milky. 

This is caused by a combination of the dissolved lime 
and the gas. The latter, which we have developed, is Carbon 
Dioxide (C.O2). 

By the above tests we find that Carbon^ Dioxide is 
heavier than the atmosphere, and thus remains in the bottle 
undisturbed by atmospheric pressure, for a time, as it com- 
bines very slowly with the air. By creating a draught, the 
combining with the air is facilitated. 



Top and Bottom Yeast. 

Remove with a glass rod, during active fermentation, a 
little of the froth from the saccharine infusion and wash it 
off with a few drops of clean water, and place a small drop 
of the solution upon the object glass of the microscope. At 
300 to 500 magnified strength we notice that the froth con- 
sists of small round or oval bubbles, which occasionally, 
though seldom, are elongated- They appear singly or in 
groups, and often look like strings of pearls. These bubbles 






YEASTS AND FERMENTS. 



77 



are yeast cells. Figure 5 shows yeast cells after five hours 
of propagation. Each cell has a thin covering of fibrin or 
cellulose; while the interior contains a soft granular albu- 
minous substance, called Plasma, or Protoplasma. 

During vigorous fermentation at a temperature of 68 to 
8o degrees R, the majority of the bubbles are forced to the 
surface of the fluid by the action of the escaping Carbon 
Dioxide, and at the final stages of fermentation gradually 
precipitate. At a temperature of 36 to 45 degrees F. the 
fermentation is slower, the generating Carbon Dioxide is 
less active in escaping and without sufficient force to bring 
the bubbles to the surface. The yeast cells to a great 
extent grow and settle on the bottom of the generating 
vessel. 

These characteristics designate top and bottom yeast. 

Both of these yeasts are of the same species, and either 




Fig. 5. 

can be converted into the other by the changing of the tem- 
perature during propagation. They are recognizable by a 
slight difference in size. Owing to the more favorable con- 
ditions during growth top yeast is somewhat better devel- 
oped than bottom yeast. Compressed yeast used in bread 
baking is top yeast. 

Distillation Test. — After the fermentation in the gen- 
erating flask has ceased, and no more bubbles rise to the sur- 
face of the fluid, test it by distillation. For this purpose we 
first filter the saccharine fluid to remove the yeast cells. 
Place the clear filtrate in a clean flask, stop it with a per- 
forated rubber cork, and connect it by means of a bent glass 



78 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



tube with a cooling apparatus. Figure 6 shows such an appa- 
ratus. The vapor generated from the filtrate contained in 
the flask passes through the coil in the cooler, as shown in 
the illustration. The cooler is provided with tube connec- 
tions at the lower and upper ends, which can be fitted with 
perforated corks, through which glass tubes may be inserted. 




Fig. 6. 



The lower tube by means of rubber tubes is connected 
with the cold water faucet, not shown in the illustration; the 
flow of cold water around the coil can be regulated at the 
faucet and drawn off at the upper tube. 

In lieu of a cooler as shown, one can be constructed by 
leading the tube of the filtrate flask into a somewhat wider 
and longer glass tube, which is connected with a second 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS. 79 

bottle. The long glass tube, in this case, must be kept cool 
by constantly pouring cold water over it during distillation. 

When all connections have been made tight, heat the 
filtrate over an alcohol lamp to a boiling point, the flask 
having been placed on a piece of wire gauze to equalize the 
heat. The arising vapors passing through the coil are con- 
densed, and drip like tears into a receptacle placed under- 
neath the cooler. This evaporating and condensing of a 
fluid is called distillation. 

The portion of the condensed fluid coming over at the 
beginning will be found, if tasted, to be very strong spirits 
of alcohol. Light it with a taper, it will produce a large 
bluish flame. 

As the distillation continues the spirits coming over lose 
gradually in strength until finally very little else but the 
vapors of water are condensed. Water boils at 212 degrees 
R, spirits of alcohol at 172 degrees F. We would therefore 
infer that at the beginning of distillation it is possible to 
recover alcohol only if the infusion was heated to 176 
degreess F. 

This view, however, is erroneous. The boiling point of 
the mixture is only slightly greater than that of pure alco- 
hol, and the generated vapors are already at the beginning 
and combination of both fluids, although at first the propor- 
tion of alcohol is the greater. 

We have now seen that yeast is capable of producing 
alcohol and carbon dioxide. This is called alcoholic 
fermentation. 

Wine, beer, brandy and other spirituous liquors are pro- 
duced by alcoholic fermentation, and the same is attributed 
to the raising of bread doughs. 

The yeast cell in its search for nutriment consumes and 
changes the sugar, to facilitate growth, finally^ reducing it 
into simpler bodies of alcohol and carbon dioxide. 

The chemical changes of the sugar are due to the ever- 
changing composition of the albuminous plasma of the yeast 
cell. When the plasma has lost the power to renew itself, it 
dies and putrefaction sets in. 

Worts of sugar and diffusible albuminous solutions are 
ideal foods for yeast, as they readily permeate the fine, 
porous coverings of the yeast cells to nourish the plasma, 
which at the same time, by its own action, creates the 
requisite warmth by the dissolution of the sugars with alco- 
hol — carbon dioxide. 

The following description will illustrate how this is 
accomplished: 



80 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Make a drumhead, by stretching and fastening a piece 
of bullock's bladder or either vegetable or animal parchment 
paper over a cylinder of glass. Place this in a vessel con- 
taining pure water, and pour into the cylinder a strong 
solution of common salt. The salt brine and the pure water 
are only separated from each other by the thin membrane 
of the bladder or the parchment- After a little while it will 
be noticed that the salt solution will have diffused out 
through the membrane until the liquid, both outside and 
inside the floating cylinder, has the same strength. This is 
called osmose, or dialysis. 

In choosing its nutriment yeast is very selective. Of the 
the carbohydrates, glucose, maltose and those of C6 H12 06 
group are capable of direct fermentation, and are quickly and 
vigorously changed by yeast. In direct opposition, we find 
that cane sugar, beet sugar, as well as the starch of flour, are 
not fermentable until chemically changed. This change is 
brought about by yeast itself. 

The plasma of the yeast contains an albuminous sub- 
stance called Invertin. As explained above, the Invertin, by 
dialysis, is diffused out through the cell covering and changes 
cane sugar and sugars of the same class, as well as part of 
the flour starch, into fermentable sugar, known as invert 
sugars. 



Reproduction of Yeast. — During fermentation yeast nour- 
ishes and reproduces itself. The granulations of the living 
plasma divides itself, and with a portion of the plasma forms 
a small protuberance at one end of the cell; it then enters 
the neck, which is gradually developed by the contraction of the 
cell wall and forms a bud. 

The neck finally closes, the budding daughter cell re- 
leases itself from the parent cell, and each are then an indi- 
vidual organism. 

This operation is known as "budding." Each parent cell 
is capable of giving off several buds in succession. The 
daughter cells in their turn reproduce in the same manner, 
and so with remarkable rapidity yeast cells multiply. 

But yeast is also reproduced by spores termed 
"ascospores." 

In this case yeast cells do not throw out a bud, but the 
plasma divides itself into (usually) four portions called 
spores, each of which surrounds itself with a thin membrane. 

These spores, when set free by the dissolution of the 
cellulose coverings of the parent cells, on account of their 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 



81 



minuteness float away into the atmosphere. If by chance they 
drop into the proper medium, such as malt wort or flour 
barms, spontaneous fermentation sets in. 

This is recognized by the fact of spontaneous fermenta- 
tion frequently and easily occurring in the fermenting rooms 
of yeast factories and breweries, as innumerable quantities 
of spores are present in the atmosphere at all times. 

Pure Yeast Cultures. — By the manner in which yeast 
nourishes and reproduces itself, we acknowledge it to be a 
plant of exceedingly elemental structure. 

Being devoid of the green coloring matter of the plant 




Fig. 7. 

Growing Yeast After 8 Hours* Propagation. 



(chlorophyll), the yeast cell is incapable of assimilating 
inorganic matter, such as carbon, nitrogen, ammonia and 
certain mineral salts, for the purpose of building up their 
tissues. 

Yeast belongs to the family of Fungi, and on account 
of the peculiar manner of its reproduction is classified as 
"Sprouting Fungi. 5 ' 



82 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

We are obliged to admit that the true nature of the 
yeast cell has as yet never been entirely satisfactorily ex- 
plained. Some scientists are of the opinion that yeast cells 
are but the embryo of higher fungi development; for it is 
known as a fact that certain species of the sprouting fungi 
do not possess the faculty to incite alcoholic fermentation, 
while, on the other hand, some of the higher species of mould 
fungi possess the qualification not alone to incite alcoholic 
fermentation, but are also capable of ascospore formation. 
So much for this explanation. 

It has been proven by actual results that different species 
of yeast produce widely different kinds of fermented liquid. 
These differences are recognized in the yeast cell of wine, 
of beer, and of the distillery, the last named being also the 
yeast of dough fermentation. 

If the yeast cell of wine be placed in a beer wort, the 
fermented wort will assume a vinous flavor, and is known as 
maltine. 

Science has shown that yeast cells are composed of 
groups of various species. The principal species, among 
others, as found in brewers' or distillers' yeasts, are known 
as Sacchoromyces Cerevisial and Sacchoromyces Pastorianus. 

Both are very much alike in appearance, both incite 
alcoholic fermentation, but develop in a similar wort a num- 
ber of widely different by-products, the analyses of which 
have thus far baffled the resources of the chemist. The 
action of these two species is readily recognized by the 
flavor and taste imparted to the fermented medium. 

As the bouquet imparted to wine is attributed to the 
wine yeast cell (Sacchoromyces Ellipsoideus), characteristic 
of the grape juice, so the baker recognizes by the flavor of 
his baked product that the proper species of yeast has been 
employed, irrespective of the flavor which^ may have been 
obtained by other materials used in the baking. 

While it is difficult to separate the various species of 
yeast cells, the phenomena of spore formation has led the 
way to accomplish it. 

At a temperature of 54 degrees R, Sacchoromyces Cere- 
visial will show ascospore formation in 200 hours, while 
Sacchoromyces Pastorianus at the same temperature forms 
spores already in 77 hours. This difference m time of the 
maturing of the spore formation of the various species of 
yeast being known, is utilized in transferring the spore of 
any specific species upon culture plates of nutrient gelatine, 
upon which the spores develop into little colonies of yeast 
cells. 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 83 

The healthiest and strongest appearing cell is then cut 
out with a sterilized platinum wire and transferred into a 
flask of sterilized malt wort, and the reproduction from a 
single cell of any given species is begun. In this manner 
pure yeast culture is accomplished. 

In the fermenting vats growing yeasts are often contami- 
nated by spores of undesirable species from the atmosphere, 
and result in producing conditions unfavorable for the pur- 
poses desired. In such cases we must resort to a pure yeast 
culture to re-establish the desired fermentation. 



Manufacture of Compressed Yeast. — Compressed yeast 
is the result of alcoholic fermentation of malt and grain 
worts. As it is of material interest to the baker to acquaint 
himself with a general knowledge regarding the manufacture 
of compressed yeast, a short but clear description is given 
below. 



Treating the Grain.— Malt is produced by soaking bar- 
ley or other grains in water and spreading in thin layers on 
the floors of the malting rooms. Being moist and in con- 
sequence supplied with artificial heat, the grains begin to 
sprout. As the rootlets grow in size a product is being 
formed in the germ that has the power to convert starch 
into sugar. This product is called Diastase. This reaction 
is still clouded with a good deal of mystery, and it has as 
yet never been clearly defined. 

We know this much, however, that some parts of the 
nitrogenous matter of grains are chemically changed into 
Diastase. 

Practice teaches the maltster, by the size the rootlets 
attain, when the maximum diastasic strength of the malt has 
been reached. 

The sprouting of the malt is now arrested by drying the 
malt in kilns at a temperature of 131 to 176 degrees F., which 
evaporates the moisture and kills further germination. 

For malting purposes barley is mostly used, as its 
diastasic strength exceeds that of any other grain. 



The Yeast Mash. — For preparing the yeast mash crushed 
malt and rye is employed, although other grains are used 
to replace part of the rye, such as corn and buckwheat. 



8* BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Experience teaches, however, that the best results are 
obtained by the use of barley malt and rye only. 

The materials are selected with great care. The water 
employed is boiled, the rye must be clean and free from 
dust, and the malt free from mould. The rye is first soaked 
in water and then crushed. 

In 200 liters of water at 125 degrees R, 100 kg. of the 
grains are mixed and constantly stirred for thirty minutes, 
until all lumps have disappeared, the temperature in the 
meantime remaining constant. At this temperature the dis- 
solving of the albuminous matters of the grains is favored, 
and the changing of the starches into sugar and dextrin is 
facilitated. 

Saccharification of the Mash. — At the expiration of the 
thirty minutes the temperature of the mash is gradually 
increased by steam from 122 to 158 degrees F-, and con- 
stantly stirred. 

It has been substantiated that these temperatures are 
best suited for a perfect gelatinization and saccharification 
of the starches without injuring the diastasic properties of 
the malt. At the same time, a temperature of 158 degrees 
F., which is continued for two hours, is useful to effectually 
sterilize the mash by destroying the undesirable bacteria. 
During this time the diastase, which, as we have seen, was 
produced in the sprouting barley during malting, effects its 
function in the quickest possible manner. The result is a 
very sweet, lasting fluid. ^ 

In order to ascertain whether the saccharification has 
been complete, a small portion of the mash is filtered and 
tested with a drop of tincture of iodine. When the tincture 
of iodine discontinues to produce a blue coloring in the 
filtered fluid the saccharification is complete. 



A adulation of the Mash. — This is probably the most 
momentous stage of compressed yeast manufacturing, and 
watchfulness must be practiced, if the object be to produce 
a pure yeast free from all possible contamination. 

The means used for this purpose is the introduction of 
lactic acid fermentation. The mash is covered up, occasion- 
ally the mash is stirred, but always from bottom upward, 
so as to bring as large a surface as possible in contact with 
the atmosphere (oxygen), while the mash is kept at a tem- 
perature favorable to lactic ferment growth. 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 85 

The reason for this acidulation is twofold. In the first 
place, the lactic ferments assist in converting the insoluble 
albuminous matters of the grains into soluble matter. Tech- 
nically, this is known as changing the albuminoids into 
peptones. 

In the second place, lactic ferment is absolute poison for 
the undesirable bacteria, which may have developed, without 
injuring in any way the yeast cells proper, but rather has 
an influence for good toward them. Sulphuric acid is some- 
times added to increase the acidity. 

When the acidity reaches 2Y2 per cent, in the mash it is 
ready for further manipulation. Apparatuses to indicate the 
per cent, of acidity developed are used for the purpose of 
accuracy. 

The acidulation of the mash having been satisfactorily 
completed, further operations are dependent upon the 
method selected to produce yeast. The older method is 
known as the "Vienna Process," while the newer method is 
called "Aeration Process." 



The Older or Vienna Process. 

Fermentation of the Mash. — At the completion of the 
acidulation of the mash it is at once cooled to yy degrees F. 
This is accomplished by continuously agitating the mash by 
mechanical means with hollow plungers that are filled with 
ice or cold water, and which at the same time serves to 
aerate the mash. 

The former method of cooling the mash in shallow vats, 
on account of infection and introduction by and of undesira- 
ble bacteria from the atmosphere into the mash, has been 
generally discarded. 

Fermentation is now introduced by adding a certain 
quantity of compressed yeast, which must be free from 
starch adulteration. 

In a short time a head begins to develop upon the sur- 
face of the mash, which gradually grows and rises to the 
top of the half-filled vats. The period of fermentation 
depends upon the temperature of the mash as well as the 
density of the mash. 

The higher the density of the mash, the more vigorous the 
fermentation. 

In general, the time consumed for proper fermentation 
is twelve to eighteen hours. 

As fermentation proceeds, the density of the mash be- 



86 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

comes less, while the yeast cells increase, and at the same 
time the temperature of the mash raises. 

The mash in this process contains the whole of the 
grains, and for this reason the head, which contains the 
yeast cells, and which is skimmed off as it rises, must be 




Fig. 8. 

Yeast Cells Fully Developed. 

strained; it is subsequently washed and then pressed. In 
contrast to this method the newer or "Aeration Process" for 
the production of yeast presents entirely different phases. 



Production of Yeast by Aeration Process. 

This method was invented in Sweden about ten years 
ago, and is in use in many yeast factories to-day. A decided 
greater percentage of yeast yield is accomplished by the 
"Aeration Process." 

After the saccharification of the mash is completed, the 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 87 

extract called "wort" is strained to remove the husks and 
bran of the grains. Large vats containing a double bottom 
are used for this purpose, the inner or upper bottom being 
perforated. Spigots are attached to the bottom of the vats 
to draw off the "wort." At first the extract appears opaque 
and is again returned to the mash. This pouring-back 
process is continued until the "wort" finally flows perfectly 
clear from the spigots. The extractive matter still adhering 
to the husks and bran of the grains is washed out or 
"sparged" with hot water. 

Another way employed for recovering the clear "wort" 
is by means of the filter press. The percolation method, 
however, is preferable, as the extraction of the essential 
properties is more complete. 

Fermentation is produced in the "wort" by adding small 
quantities of compressed yeast also, or by the use of pitch- 
ing yeast. During the fermenting period a continuous stream 
of atmospheric air is forced through the "wort" by the aid 
of air pumps. In order to eliminate atmospheric dust and 
bacteria, the air before entering the "wort" filtered through 
cotton, and sterilized by passing it through a solution of 
salicylic acid. It is also necessary to distribute the air to all 
parts of the "wort" equally, by means of perfected tubes, 
which are attached to the main air pipe, branching out in 
various directions at the bottom of the fermenting vats, with 
the perforations facing downward. At the beginning the air 
current is very moderate, and is increased in accordance and 
in proportion of the yeast growth. At the final stages of 
fermentation the air current is again moderated. This forcing 
in of air, or rather oxygen, in the "wort" stimulates in an 
exceedingly large measure the propagation of yeast, but care 
is exercised in this respect, however, for if the air pressure 
be too strong a large per cent, of alcohol, a very important 
by-product, will be lost. The characteristic feature of this 
method, distinguishing it from the Vienna Process, is the 
continued aeration during fermentation, hence called "Aera- 
tion Process." 



Obtaining the Yeast. — Fermentation of the "mash" or 
the "worts" proceeds at a lively rate. In observing the "head" 
or froth, during the "Vienna Process," which at first is 
transparent, gradually assumes a milky or of more opaque 
appearance, caused by enormous increasing growth of yeast 
cells, filling up the froth bubbles. When the cells are fully 
developed the fermentation may be considered finished. 



88 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Practice assumes, although the assumption is not always 
reliable, that this stage has been reached when the "head" 
or froth begins to recede. The only sure method to deter- 
mine proper maturity of the yeast cell is by microscopic 
observation. 

Placing some of the froth under the object glass of the 
microscope, the yeast cells most appear well developed and 
isolated from each other. It should be the exception rather 
than the rule that budding cells still be visible. 

Not until assured that the proper time has been reached 
should the skimming of the upper portion of the froth be 
begun. This portion of the "head" contains the so-called 
"pitching yeast/' and is used largely in starting new 
propagation. 

Large galvanized perforated spoons with long handles 
are used to skim off the froth. Repeated observations of the 
froth during the skimming are made, to ascertain the condi- 
tion of the yeast cells. 

The yeasty froth is immediately mixed with ice cold 
water to arrest further fermentation. This also serves to 
increase the keeping properties of the yeast. 

The water containing the skimmed-off matter is now 
run through strainers of varying sized meshes, the coarser 
retaining the husks and bran, while the finer meshes prevent 
the gummy matter adhering to the yeast cells from passing. 

The strained yeast cells are caught up in vessels con- 
taining water, where they precipitate in a compact layer, and 
is then ready to be washed. 

In order to watch the settling of the yeast, these vessels 
are constructed with windows so as to give the operator a 
perfect vision of the settling. 

This operation of washing the yeast in new water and 
allowing it to settle is repeated several times, at which time 
nearly all of the impurities have been removed and excellent 
keeping properties have been attained. 

A newer method of washing yeast has lately been intro- 
duced by the invention of a specially constructed patented 
centerfuge. If it be intended to mix starch with the yeast, 
it is usually done just after the washing has been completed. 

Potato or rice starch are used. The utmost carefulness 
must be observed in the examination of the starches, as they 
frequently are contaminated with bacteria or acids, which 
tend to injure the keeping qualities of the yeast and very 
soon become unfit for use. 

After the clear water of the last washing has been re- 
moved by decantation, the compact settled mass is pressed 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 89 

dry by hydraulic or filter press, and finally formed by spe- 
cially constructed machines into pound pieces, familiar to all 
bakers. 

The "mash" or the /'wort" after the yeast has been 
removed contain alcohol in paying quantities, and is recov- 
ered by distillation. 

One hundred kilograms of mash yields an average of n 
per cent, yeast and 28 per cent, of alcohol, if fermented 
according to the "Vienna Process." The "Aeration Process" 
yields 25 per cent, of yeast and 18 per cent, of alcohol. The 
remaining grains in the liquids are much sought after for 
their value as desirable fodder for cattle. 



Yeast Adulteration. — High class compressed yeast should 
be free from all adulterants. Most manufacturers, on 
account of the slimy matter of yeast, causing many difficul- 
ties in pressing, add from 5 to 10 per cent, of potato starch, 
claiming that it increases the keeping qualities by absorb- 
ing part of the moisture. The writer, however, does not 
agree with them. 

Starch is undoubtedly at times added to yeast in large 
excess; it then becomes an adulteration; this fraud is, how- 
ever, readily detected by treating the sample of yeast with 
iodine. For this purpose break up a little of the yeast in a 
test tube with some water, shake it up well and add a few 
drops of tincture of iodine; after standing a little while thte 
starch will settle at the bottom of the tube in a dark blue 
layer. 

Plaster of paris has also been found in yeast; this, be- 
sides being fraudulent, is decidedly criminal, and verily, is 
giving a "stone for bread." 

Nature of and Examination of Compressed Yeast. — A 
good sample of compressed yeast should have a creamy 
white color. A brownish discoloration would indicate that 
fermentation had been too for prolonged before skimming. 
It should have an odor of apples, not cheesy; neither should 
it have an acid odor or taste. A piece of blue litmus paper 
pressed against the cut of the yeast should remain neutral 
or at the most show but a faint sig nof red; a marked change 
in the paper from blue to red would indicate acidity. 

A microscopic view of good yeast dissolved in water 
should have the appearance as seen in Fig. 2, shown above. 
When broken it should show a fine fracture, irregularly 
rounded. Should it be crumbly, deterioration has set in. 
In lukewarm water it should melt readily, and not be sloppy 



90 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

to the touch. The dissolved yeast placed in a glass tube 
should settle slowly and evenly with the water above it per- 
fectly clear. During this test adulteration with plaster of 
paris is readily detected, as it would be the first to settle 
out, and by carefully decanting the flpid, examination of the 
sediment would disclose plaster of paris. 

If the solution of yeast and water does not clear itself 
the yeast is spoiled, and is of no use for the fermenting of 
doughs. It is contaminated with wild yeast and harmful 
bacteria, and would be instrumental in starting putrefactive 
fermentation, ruining the flavor of baked goods. Should we 
desire to ascertain the amount of starch present in an adul- 
terated yeast, the following method is applicable: 

Weigh a small beaker and a small glass rod on a very 
accurate scale; or, better still, on an analytical balance, and 
assume the weight to be 17.5 g- In the beaker place 10 g. 
of the compressed yeast under examination; break it up fine 
with the glass rod, and place the beaker in a hot water bath 
for several hours, weighing occasionally until two consecu- 
tive weighings are exactly equal; for instance, 21.2 g. We 
deduct from this the weight of the beaker and glass rod, 
giving us the following figures: 21.2 g. — 17.5 = 37 8- 

The quantity of moisture evaporated out of the yeast 
would therefore be 10 g — 3.7 = 6.3 g. According to the 
findings of Hayduck, pressed yeast contains originally 73.5 
per cent, and dry starch 36 per cent, of moisture. 

We now proceed to make deductions to determine the 
quantity of starch contained as an adulterant in the mixture. 
We set the example: "What per cent, of starch is contained 
in a mixture of yeast and starch if 10 g. of the mixture gives 
off by evaporation 6.3 g. of moisture, yeast containing 75.3 
per cent, and starch 36 per cent, of moisture?" 

Solution. — One hundred g. of pure press yeast, heated to 
dryness, gives off 73.5 g.; therefore, 10 g. heated should give 
off 7.35 per cent, moisture. 

In our test the loss is but 6.3 g., consequently a de- 
ficiency of 1.04 g. This in itself indicates starch adulteration. 

Starch gives off 36 per cent, of moisture; therefore, 1 g. 
gives off 0.36 g., and 1 g. of yeast 0.735 g- of moisture. With 
each 1 g. of starch addition the moisture loss is found to be 
0.735 — 0.36 = 0.375 g- deficient. 

In the 10 g- mixture under examination there is con- 
tained as many times 1 g. of starch as 0.375 S- is contained 
in 1.05 g., which is equal to 2.8 g. In a 100 g. mixture the 
result would be 28 g., or 28 per cent., which is the per cent 
of starch adulteration in our mixture examined. 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 
The Fermenting Strength of Yeast. 



91 



The best manner for the baker to test the strength of 
yeast is to take equal parts of the samples of the various 
yeasts, about 10 g.; dissolve in ioo g. of water at 85 degrees 
F., and make a dough with equal amounts of the same bread 
flour (about 1990 g.). 

In order to prevent transferring of any one yeast sample 




Fig. 9. 

to either of the other doughs, it is advisable to thoroughly 
wash the hands between each mixing. Place the doughs 
in glass jars of equal dimensions, and allow them to raise 
at an even temperature. It goes without saying that all 
ingredients must be weighed exactly alike, and the tempera- 
tures in all cases be the same. The yeast whichc gives the 
greatest expansion of the dough has the preference. 



92 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Another simple manner to test the strength of yeast is 
to drop a piece of the dough into tepid water (85 degrees 
F.), and observe the time consumed between immersion and 
when the piece of dough rises to the surface of the water. 
The dough which rises in the 2shortest time lontains the 
strongest yeast. 

Of course, in technical schools yeast strength is deter- 
mined along different lines. A Hayduck carbonic acid meas- 
uring apparatus is used for this purpose, and is shown in 
cut (Fig. 9). It consists of two connecting glass tubes 
fastened against a board. The wider of the tubes has a 
capacity of 500 cc, and ends at the top in a narrow glass 
tube, to which rubber tubing may be attached, and is grad- 
uated in cubic centimetres. The other narrow tube ends at top 
funnel-shaped. 

Through the funnel the apparatus is filled with water, 
colored blue to make observations easily. In order that the 
water may not absorb any of the carbonic acid gas, which 
would tend to make the test inaccurate, on top of the water 
in the wider tube a thin layer of petroleum is poured. 

In gas generating flasks (a) a suitable "wort" and a 
definite amount of yeast, to be tested, is dissolved and placed 
in a water bath. (B) is a second flask for the next follow- 
ing test. (C) is a pinch-cock, which is left open so long as 
(D) is kept closed. The generated carbonic acid gas forces 
the water out of the wide tube and is caught up at (G). 
The yeast which has the ability to displace the largest 
amount of water at stated periods is considered the best fer- 
mentation inciter. Before any readings are taken the water 
in both tubes is brought to the same level by means of 
cock (E). 

If care be taken to use the exact proportions of mate- 
rials in each test at even temperature, reliable conclusions 
are obtained from each individual yeast sample. 



Water. — Next to flour, water is the most abundant com- 
pound used by the baker. It is the great solvent of Nature. 
Pure water is composed of the two gases, hydrogen and oyxgen, 
in proportions of 1 to 8. It is colorless and tasteless. 

Water as found in nature is never pure. Owing to its 
action as a solvent, it contains bodies like lime, magnesia 
and potash in solution, besides air, carbon dioxide and other 
mineral matters. Hard water is such as contains more than 
seven grains of mineral salts per gallon. 



YEASTS AND FERMENTS 93 

The hardness due to bicarbonate of lime may be neutral- 
ized by boiling. Other mineral salts are penniment. 

In general, soft water is more adaptable for bakers* use, 
as hard water retards fermentation and somewhat checks 
the softening changes going on in the dough during fer- 
mentation. 

Doughs made with hard water require to lay longer to 
properly mature. 

It is for this reason that the baker will find it necessary 
at equal dough temperatures to modify his methods when 
using hard or soft waters to get uniform results. 

It is of the utmost importance that water used in the 
bakery be free from organic matter that is detrimental to 
health, as many such organisms have a tendency to set up 
putrefactive fermentation in doughs. 

In a broad sense, however, water that is declared fit for 
drinking purposes can be safely employed in bread work. 



Salt. — Chemically known as chloride of sodium. It is 
produced from three different sources: Bay or sea salt, rock 
or mine salt, and natural brine or pit salt. Of these the 
refined product of natural brine or pit salt is to be preferred 
by bakers. 

It should be dry, to insure uniform results, as wet salt 
contains a large percentage of water, which interferes with 
obtaining accurate and uniform quantities needed in the 
doughs. 

It is added to doughs in varying amounts, from 1^2 to 4 
pounds per barrel of flour, and gives bread flavor and taste. 
When working with soft water more salt is required than in 
hard water. While salt gives the bread flavor, it also retards 
fermentation. It is especially of import by keeping in check 
lactic and butyric fermentation, causing sour bread. Author- 
ities claim that salt in all proportions from 1.4 per cent, 
upwards retards fermentation and diminishes the speed of 
gas evolution, the raising of the dough. 



Milk. — Is largely used in bread making. Dry milk on 
account of its convenience, has supplanted fluid milk in a 
large measure in the bakery. 

Although not universally accepted, the writer is of the 
opinion that dry milk containing pure butter fat will add 
equal flavor to bread in which fluid milk is used. 

Besides giving flavor and nourishing properties to bread, 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

on account of its dryness it has water absorptive qualities 
that are of economic value to the baker. 

_ Dry milk also contains soluble extracts that have an 
invigorating influence on yeast growth, i. e., fermentation, 
and improves and gives a better bloom in the crust of the 
bread. 

In point of economic value, the baker should determine, 
by making small trial doughs, the increased volume obtained 
by reason of the extra moisture absorbing properties of dry 
milk when used in doughs. 



Fat. — Lard, compound^ lard and cotton-seed oil are the 
fats generally employed in bread making. The use of fats 
effects a finer texture in the bread. 

A colorless shortening assists in producing a whiter 
crumb, and also by coating the cells of the loaf retains the 
moisture of the baked bread. Doughs containing large 
amounts of shortening, under best and equal conditions, will 
stand a larger amount of proof, as part of the shortening In 
a well mixed dough has combined with the gluten of the 
flour used, allowing it to stretch further and become more 
elastic and still hold the increased amount of gas generated 
by the heat of the oven, and produces a loaf of greater 
volume. 

Not all shortenings will produce the same effect, and 
the baker should experiment with small batches. The points 
to be determined are the effect the shortening has on the 
crust, volume of the loaf, as well as the color. 



Sugar. — Among the sugar groups used in the bakery we 
find cane sugar, malt extracts, glucose and yeast foods. 

Each of these products have characteristic effects on 
fermentation and doughs, and will be treated in a later paper. 



& 



DOUGHS LEAVENED BY 
YEAST 



-BY PROF E. W. HABERMAAS 



There are two distinct ways of making doughs. One 
way is to set a sponge first, then make the dough, and the 
other way is to make the dough at once. The first is called 
a "Sponge Dough" and the second is called a "Straight 
Dough." Straight dough is so called, because all ingredients 
such as yeast, salt, sugar, lard, water and flour are all mixed 
and formed into a dough. There are various reasons for 
making straight doughs, a few of which we will proceed 
to give. In the first place, it is more convenient to make a 
straight dough, because it does not require as much time to make 
as does mixing the sponge dough, because the mixing is all done 
at one time. Then, again, a straight dough can be taken in a 
shorter time than a sponge dough. By this I mean that in case 
of necessity the dough can be taken, in from i'J^ to 2 hours 
after it has been made. I do not advocate taking the dough 
in such a short time, but it can be done, because I have 
done it with good results. 

Straight dough requires more yeast than doughs made 
from a sponge, because the yeast has not as favorable a 
medium in which to grow, in the straight dough as it has 
in the sponge dough. It is conceded by some that straight 
dough requires a stronger flavor than a dough made from a 
sponge; by others that a stiffer dough is required; by others, 
that the finished product has a coarse texture, and that an 
"yeasty" taste predominates. The author made straight 
doughs daily for eleven years successfully. He neither made 
a specially stiff dough nor did his finished product have a 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

coarse texture nor an "y eas ty" taste. Sometimes when the 
temperature of the shop was very high or an exceptionally 
weak flour was sent us, then would our product have a some- 
what coarse texture, but this would soon be remedied by 
using less yeast and reducing the temperature of the liquid 
used. There are advantages in using strong flour, but they 
are alike in the straight and the sponge dough, and they 
are larger yields and larger goods, but these are not the 
only points to be considered. 

Some bakers are partial to spring wheat flour, because 
the yield in bread is greater than when a blend is used. 

Too often is quantity preferred to quality. It seems 
that most bakers are working to the one end, namely, to 
get the flour which yields most bread. In this endeavor 
they are sacrificing quality for quantity. 

Spring flour containing a larger per cent, of gluten than 
winter wheat flour naturally takes up more moisture, pro- 
ducing in turn more bulk, therefore more bread. 

Then again the gluten in the spring wheat flour is of a 
tenacious character, producing a tough elastic dough. Such 
a dough can resist a greater gas pressure than can one made 
of weaker flour, and can therefore stand more proof, thus 
producing a larger and better appearing loaf than one made 
of a winter wheat flour or a blend. 

If a blend is used, we will say two parts of a high grade 
winter wheat, and one part of spring wheat flour, and the 
dough is properly worked, the bread will have a fine, smooth, 
soft, velvety texture, and a mild, sweet taste. The loaf will 
not be as large a loaf as the one made of spring wheat flour. 
but will remain soft and moist longerthan the loaf made of 
spring wheat flour. The reason for this is, that winter wheat 
flour contains a larger per cent, of natural moisture and a 
smaller per cent, of gluten than the spring flour, therefore 
it takes up less moisture, and consequently does not lose 
as much by evaporation in baking; thus leaving a larger 
per cent, of moisture in the bread. 

The chemist's test cannot decide the true baking value 
of a flour. A bakeshop test, made by a practical baker, is 
absolutely necessary to decide this matter. 

The principal points to be considered when making 
straight dough are these: the temperature of the ingre- 
dients, the temperature of the shop, the quantity of yeast, 
and the quality of the flour used. If the temperature of 
the shop is very high, the liquid used should be cool, and 
the quantity of yeast should be reduced. 

The most favorable temperature for fermentation is 



BREAD MAKING 97 

from 80 to 90 degrees Fahr., though I prefer to have the 
dough 85 degrees Fahr. 

Before proceeding to make the dough, take the tem- 
perature of the flour and the shop, then heat the water to a 
temperature which will give your dough a temperature of 
80 degrees Fahr. when ready. For example, if the tem- 
perature of your flour were 5 degrees Fahr., the temperature 
of the water would have to be 10 degrees Fahr. Now if 
the temperature of the shop were 70 degrees Fahr., the 
temperature of the water could be raised to no degrees 
Fahr. I would advise you not to get the temperature of 
the dough too high, but would rather that you raise the 
temperature of your shop. Dough chills very quickly when 
it is on the bench, and after a dough is chilled it will come 
up very slowly. When making: dough in a dough-mixer, 
the temperature of the water should be at least 5 degrees 
higher than when making it by hand, because the mixers 
are more or less cold, while, when dough is made by hand 
you have the animal heat of the hands to keep up the 
temperature of the dough. When the weather is very warm, 
the temperature of the water must be changed to suit. For 
example, if the temperature of your shop is 90 degrees Fahr., 
your flour would naturally be very near the same temperature 
(providing it were kept in the shop), then the temperature of 
the water would have to be at the utmost 75 degrees Fahr., 
because the temperature of the dough would continue to 
rise while it was in the trough or mixer. 



Process for Making Straight Dough. 

Heat the liquid to the required temperature, then dis- 
solve the yeast in a portion of the liquid, then, when the 
yeast is dissolved, add it to the rest of the liquid; then add 
the salt and dissolve it; then add the fats and sugar; then 
add the flour. (As above mentioned for uniform results it is 
best to weigh the flour, sugar, salt and fats.) After the 
flour has been added, work it into a smooth dough. 



Weighing and Measuring Ingredients Used in Baking. 

By Professor E. W. Habermaas. 

All solids used in baking should be weighed, and all 

liquids should be measured accurately. Varied results and 

failures in baking are very often due to inaccurate weighing 



98 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

and measuring of ingredients. If your recipe calls for a 
pound of sugar, don't use 1%. pounds instead. Or if a recipe 
calls for 1 gallon of milk, don't use Y% gallon instead. The 
author has often seen bakers use 1% pounds of some in- 
gredient when 1 pound was what should have been used. 
Many bakers are exceptionally careless about measuring the 
liquids, such as milk and water. They will dip a quart or 
pint measure into a can of milk or into a bucket of water 
and draw it out on a slant, thus causing a portion of the 
liquid to run out. Often as much as one-fourth of a pint of 
milk will run out of the measure, still they will count that 
a full measure. This may seem a trifle, but when measuring 
a number of quarts or pints, it ceases to be a trifling matter 
but becomes a matter of vital importance. For example, 
you are about to make a dough of four quarts of milk or 
water, and you measure the milk or water as above shown. 
After having added the flour and you are making the dough, 
you will find that the dough is too stiff. This is based on 
the fact that you use a given quantity of flour to every quart 
of milk or water used, as should be the case, if you expect 
uniform results. You have the correct amount of flour, but 
not enough milk or water. Then again, the yield of such 
a dough would be less than it should be. Most bakers do 
not weigh the flour for their dough. Where this is the 
case, flour is usually added until the dough is of the proper 
consistency. So in that case the fact that the baker had not 
measured the liquid accurately would not necessitate getting 
too stiff a dough, because he has not a given quantity of 
flour to work in but adds it until the dough is of the proper 
consistency, but the yield will be less because there is less 
dough. 

I do not approve of this method of making doughs, 
because the results are not uniform, and it requires more 
time to make the dough, because you are compelled to add 
more flour occasionally to get the proper consistency. 
Whereas, when you have the exact amount of flour and add 
it at once, you can proceed with dough without interrup- 
tion. Then again, when you weigh the flour for your dough, 
you always have uniform results. 

The flour, sugar, malt extract, salt and fats (if any) 
should be weighed, and the milk or water measured or 
weighed for every batch of dough, no matter how large or 
how small, if you would have uniform results. 

One of the "hit or miss" methods prevalent in most 
shops is that bakers measure the water and weigh the salt, 
and guess at the rest. Fats, sugar and flour are seldom 



BREAD MAKING 99 

weighed. What are the consequences? Sometimes they have 
a stiff dough, sometimes a soft dough, and sometimes a medium 
dough. Sometimes the dough comes up too fast and sometimes 
too slow, owing to the consistency of the dough. Then, again, 
they never get the same number of loaves out of the same size 
batch. If the dough is too stiff, they get more than the required 
number, and if the dough is too soft they get less than the re- 
quired number out of the batch. 

In large shops such methods would not be tolerated, 
then why should they be tolerated in small shops?^ Thou- 
sands of dollars could be saved monthly in bakeshops if more 
accurate methods were adopted. 



When using avery strong flour you can use a little more 
yeast than ordinarily without fear of mincing the dough, because 
strong flour can stand more proof; but unless absolutely neces- 
sary, don't use any more yeast than is required under ordinary 
conditions. During the summer months it is well to use more 
salt than during cold weather, because salt acts as a governor — 
it holds the dough in check and keeps it sweet. 

Too much yeast creates an over-abundance of gas, and if 
the dough is not tough enough to withstand the pressure of 
the gas, it tears and allows the gas to escape; the dough then 
falls and loses its vitality. If this dough were "made up" into 
loaves, and when baked were cut in two, it would be seen that 
the texture would be very coarse; it would be a mass of holes, 
and the taste would betray a trace of lactic fermentation. This 
bread would not be fit to eat. Don't allow your doughs to get 
too old. If a dough gets too old it loses its vitality, and when 
baked it will have a coarse texture and will have a sour taste. 
Test your doughs as follows: When the dough has set about 
one hour, jam your hand into it; if it begins to fall it is ready 
to take; if it does not fall, allow it to set about one-half hour, 
then try it again. A dough may be taken before it falls, but I 
would not advise you to make a practice of doing that. I have 
made a batch of bread and had it baked and out of the oven 
in three hours. I set the sponge at 9.30 a. m., made the dough 
at 10.30 a. m., and had the bread baked at 1 p. m. This bread 
had a very fine, smooth texture, and had a very sweet taste. 
I advocate taking doughs as soon as they are ready, if you 
want a nice, smooth texture and a sweet taste to your bread; 
and trust that it is your aim to produce such a loaf. 

The third process in the art of bread making is pushing or 
"punching" the dough down. 



100 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Pushing or "Punching" the Dough Down. 

When the dough is well "up," or raised, push or "punch" 
it down (using both hands), to force out the gas, then raise 
up one end of the dough and lap it over the other, then push 
it down again. Continue this process until the dough is firm 
and compact, then cover it, and when it is up again take it. This 
is done to prevent the dough from getting too old, or from 
losing its vitality. When a dough is required at a certain time 
and there is no time to push or punch the dough down, this 
process may be omitted. 

The fourth process in bread making is breaking the dough. 



Breaking the Dough. 

When the dough is ready remove it from the trough or bowl 
and put it on the bench or table; then cut it into pieces weigh- 
ing about 10 pounds; then pat it down with both hands, then 
take^ up one end of the dough and lap it over the other, then 
pat it down again until you have the piece of dough very flat; 
then fold it over and over. Continue to pat down and fold 
oyer the dough until it is very compact, then take up the next 
piece, and so on, until you have the entire batch of dough firm 
and compact. In some large shops this work is done by machines 
called "dough breaks." 

"Breaking" is done to free the dough from excessive gas 
and to keep the dough young and also to produce a firm 
loaf of bread. If the dough is "made up" before it has been 
freed from excessive gas, it will produce a spongy loaf of bread, 
with large, irregular holes in it. Such a loaf of bread will dry 
out very quickly. After the dough has been freed from exces- 
sive gas it becomes firm and compact, and the loaves of bread 
made from this dough will likewise be firm and compact. (At 
this period of the dough all gas contained in the dough can be 
classed as "excessive," because it is of no real value, but rather 
a hindrance, because it makes additional work to get the dough 
into proper shape for making it up into loaves.) Now, when 
the yeast again becomes active and gas begins to form, the loaf 
will raise evenly, because what gas remains in the loaf is evenly 
distributed throughout the loaf, thus producing a nicely shaped 
loaf. 

The fourth process in the art of bread making is weighing. 



BREAD MAKING 101 

Weighing the Loaves. 

Cut the dough into pieces of as near a uniform size as possi- 
ble, then weigh them as required. The exact weight I cannot 
fix; that must be determined by the price of material used, the 
locality in which you are located, the cost of labor, etc. 

In making up a selling price, every detail, such as cost of ma- 
terial, labor, rent, light, fuel, heat, wrapping paper, twine, adver- 
tising display, wear and tear on horse and wagon (if you 
have any), feed, etc., salary for yourself, interest on money in- 
vested, etc., must be figured in, or "you will come out of the 
small end of the horn," as they say. 



After the dough is made, proceed as follows to work it 
smooth: Cut oif (with a scraper) a portion of the dough and 
place it on the bench, then spread it out (using both hands) as 
wide and long as possible, then fold it double, then spread it 
out again, as before directed, then fold it over. Continue this 
process until you have a nice, smooth, dry dough, then take up 
another piece of dough and proceed as directed. Continue taking 
up pieces of dough and working them as directed until you 
have worked the entire batch of dough, then put it in the trough 
and allow it to "raise." When making straight dough with a 
dough mixer, proceed as follows : Put the water into the mixer 
(but keep back a small portion in which to dissolve the yeast), 
then dissolve the yeast, then put it into the mixer, then add the 
sugar, fats, salt, etc., then start the mixer, then add the flour and 
allow the machine to run until you have a smooth, dry dough. 
Some bakers allow their mixers to run ten minutes and others al- 
low them to run twenty minutes. This is simply a matter of 
opinion. My advice is to run the mixer until you have a smooth, 
dry dough. 



Processes in Bread Making. 

Before we have the product called bread, it has passed 
through fourteen processes, which I will name and describe in 
rotation. The first of these processes is called setting sponge. 



Setting Sponge. 

Setting sponge is the first process in the art of bread making. 
Proceed to set sponge as follows: Measure the quantity of 



102 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

liquid desired and put it into a mixing bowl or trough, then take 
out a portion of the liquid and dissolve the yeast in it (about 
y 2 gallon for each pound of yeast used). The yeast must be 
thoroughly dissolved; then add it to the rest of the liquid, then 
add flour to give it the consistency of medium dough {2% pounds 
of flour, one-half spring wheat and one-half winter wheat will 
give you a fine sponge), then work it well to prevent crust from 
forming on it, then allow it to raise. The length of time re- 
quired to raise the sponge depends upon conditions, namely, the 
quantity of yeast used, the temperature of the shop, the temper- 
ature of the liquid and flour, the consistency of the sponge, and 
the size of the sponge. Large sponges require less yeast (in pro- 
portion), and raise quicker than small sponges, because they are 
not as easily chilled as small sponges are. Some bakers prefer 
an old sponge and a young dough, while others prefer the op- 
posite — a young sponge and an old dough. I prefer to take the 
sponge as soon as it is ready, and the dough likewise. By so 
doing we always get an article that is not overproved, and with- 
out a trace of lactic fermentation. Goods made from an old 
overproved dough are not fit to eat. If you make a nice, sweet 
product you will have no difficulty in establishing a good trade. 
Watch the sponge and take it just as soon as it begins to fall. 
If you want to test a sponge shake the vessel, and if the sponge 
falls it is ready to take. If the sponge is not ready, the shaking 
up which you gave the sponge will not check the growth of it. 
I have taken sponge one hour old and produced excellent results. 
The second process in the art of bread making is making 
dough. 



Making Dough. 

Melt the fat (if lard or compounds are used), dissolve the 
sugar and salt in the water, then add them to the sponge and 
work them thoroughly, tearing the sponge to pieces and working 
it until you have the whole a smooth mass, then add the flour 
(in portions), enough to make a fairly stiff dough, and work it 
thoroughly until you have a smooth, dry dough. Work the 
dough same as when making a straight dough. Keep the dough 
covered and at a temperature of not less than 80 deg. F. When 
the temperature of the shop is below that, and the dough is to 
be taken in two or three hours, both the sponge and the dough 
must be kept above 85 deg. F. While a little chill would not 
affect a dough, still it would delay it considerably. Chilling re- 
tards the growth of the yeast, and after the dough has been 



BREAD TEXTURE 103 

chilled it will take some time to raise its temperature to con- 
tinue the growth of the yeast cells. 

There are various ways of hurrying doughs, a few of which 
are as follows: By using a little more yeast than ordinarily, 
and by making a soft dough, and by reducing the quantity of salt, 
and by keeping both the sponge and the dough at a high temper- 
ature. When using a larger per cent, of yeast than ordinarily, 
watch both the sponge and the dough, and take them young 
(just as soon as they are ready), or lactic (souring) fermen- 
tation will take place. Don't use too much yeast. Too much 
yeast will give the baked product a peculiar taste, and will compel 
you to be very careful in the handling of the dough, especially 
so in warm weather. 



VARIATIONS IN BREAD TEXTURE 



BY C. MILLER 



That there is a wide variance in texture or grain in bread 
from day to day, or from batch to batch, produced under 
seemingly same conditions, is not to be denied. There are 
several causes, any one of which may produce the difference 
between good and poor texture: 

(i) Improper fermentation, the most fruitful source. 

(2) Improper handling or preparation of the dough pre- 
vious to panning. 

(3) Over-proofing before baking. 

(4) Ovens too hot or too cold. 

By taking up these causes in the order named I hope to 
point out to those who are not practical some of the difficul- 
ties which confront the operative baker, and which make the 



104 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

production of uniform texture in bread almost as difficult at 
it would be to bail the water out of Lake Michigan with a 
bucket. 

My observation, covering a period of more than thirty 
years, leads me to believe that absolutely uniform texture or 
grain in bread will never be produced so long as we make 
bread with yeast. This brings me to the first cause named, 
that of fermentation. 

As there are no known mechanical means of determining 
the amount or degree of fermentation in dough, this must be 
left to the judgment of the baker, and his judgment is prone 
to err. If the dough is under-fermented the resultant texture 
of the bread will most likely be rough, waxy and heavy to 
the eye and touch. If the dough be over-fermented, the tex- 
ture takes on a grayish look and feels coarse and dry and 
inclines to crumble. The difference in time between under 
and over-fermentation is not long, and, as previously stated, 
depends entirely upon the judgment of the operative baker, 
and were his judgment infallible, which it is not, other con- 
ditions in the bakery many times make it impossible for him 
to take the dough at the proper period of fermentation, due 
to the erratic and eccentric nature of fermentation of the 
various batches under course of manufacture. Although made 
apparently identical, in which every ingredient, including the 
water, has been carefully weighed, the revolutions of the 
mixing machine counted, to produce as near as possible one 
dough like the other, these doughs, all of a temperature not 
to vary more than half of a degree, and this temperature con- 
trolled in a room specially constructed for this purpose — 
with all of this care and fidelity to detail, it is seldom that 
any two doughs will ferment exactly alike. That being so, 
what may be expected where such facilities are lacking, and 
where such close attention to detail is not practiced? The 
subject of fermentation is a long one, and I only touch upon 
it as it relates to the texture or grain of baked bread, point- 
ing out the difficulty of its control outside of the laboratory. 

Taking up the second cause of poor texture (in the order 
named), that of improper handling of the dough before pan- 
ning, I may say it is impossible to make bread of a fine tex- 
ture or grain without a certain amount of manipulation of 
the dough during the process of fermentation. This has been 
termed by the baker "cutting over" or "turning back." If 
this part of the work is not properly done there will be a 
consequent sacrifice of texture or grain. This cutting over, 
when properly done, consists of cutting the dough in pieces 
as large as can be conveniently handled, and stretching these 



BREAD TEXTURE 105 

pieces as long as possible and placing the same again in the 
trough, one piece on top of the other, until the entire batch 
has been so treated. This serves two purposes: (i) That 
of again bringing the dough, which had become warmer in 
the center of the batch, to a uniform temperature through- 
out; (2) it makes a more thorough distribution of the air 
cells which were produced by the gases in their attempt to 
escape by rising upward through the mass of dough. It is 
this repeated redistribution of the air cells to finer size and 
greater number which aids materially in the production of a 
bread of fine texture. This can best be illustrated by calling 
your attention to the "snow-flake" bread, or brake dough, 
which was once quite popular in many sections of this coun- 
try. The process of manufacture, in which the dough was 
run through iron rollers from twenty to thirty times, always 
folding and running through the rollers again and again, is 
an intensified redistribution of the air cells, and this process 
produces a texture or grain very fine and pleasing to the eye 
and touch- 

The over-proofing of the dough before baking is a weak- 
ness inherited by environment by about 99 per cent, of the 
operative bakers. This desire to see a large loaf at the 
expense of flavor and texture is caused largely by the criti- 
cism of the smaller loaf by the general public. It is an inevi- 
table law of nature that you cannot get something for 
nothing. You cannot have quality, with fine texture or grain, 
and at the same time have a large loaf which only pleases 
the eye on its exterior. Either quality or quantity must be 
sacrificed. It is for the individual baker to say which it 
shall be. 

And last, but not least, the cause of poor texture or grain 
is due to improper heat of the ovens, as without a perfect 
baking heat it is quite possible to spoil the most perfect 
dough. If the oven be too hot, causing the bread to crust 
before the loaf has had time to become heated through, the 
result will be poor grain or texture, as the gases within the 
loaf would be imprisoned by the crust already formed, and 
as these gases become more heated and light as the loaf 
grows hotter, they eventually follow along the lines of^ least 
resistance and break through the loaf at its weakest point of 
crust already formed, causing the loaf to be ill-shaped and 
drawn, and the grain to be uneven and furrowed. Again, if 
the oven be too cold, the loaf is too slowly heated to stop in 
time the action of fermentation, and the result would be much 
the same as over-proofing — open texture with inclination to 
be dry and crumbling. 



106 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Greek Bread. 

One-half pint milk (bare measure), i ounce yeast, pinch 
of flour, 2 eggs, y 2 ounce sugar. Ferment 90 degrees F. 



Dough. 

One pound flour, % pound butter, zV^ ounces sugar, J4 
ounce ground cinnamon. 

Make the above quantities into a very light dough, and 
allow to lie covered in warm place for 45 minutes. When 
ready to turn out on to the board, hand up, and pin out 
to little more than J4 inch thick. At this stage sprinkle some 
granulated sugar over the dough, splash with little water, 
and bring two sides over to meet in the center, so as to 
entirely enclose the sugar. Pin out again and repeat same 
operation of adding sugar and folding over. The dough 
will now require to be pinned out to J4 J n ch thick, when it 
should be cut into strips 2^4 inches wide and placed on 
warmed greased baking sheets. Wash with milk, sprinkle 
over a good layer of granulated sugar, and place into the 
prover containing little steam. When ready bake in hot oven, 
allow to cool, then cut into small square pieces, according to 
size required. 






ffi 



AMERICAN RYE BREAD 
METHODS 



In Europe most all of the rye breads are raised with 
sour dough, but American bakers employ a variety of 
methods; some bakers are using the sour dough process, 
others are taking a part sour dough and use compressed 
yeast with it, others use a potato ferment, or compressed 
yeast without sour dough. The sour dough process recom- 
mends itself because it is cheap; all that is required is a 
small piece of rye bread dough left over from the previous 
day's batch for a start; there is no yeast to pay for. It is a 
process which requires experience and close attention to 
make a nice and palatable bread. The difficulty lies in the 
treatment of the sour dough. This dough should not be 
sour, as the name would make one believe; it should be kept 
up to a certain degree of sweetness by refreshing or renew- 
ing it regularly. Rye breads made with sour dough have a 
peculiar characteristic flavor; this flavor is lacking in rye 
breads which are raised only with yeast. 

A combination process, in which yeast and sour dough 
are used together, either with a sponge, or also in a straight 
dough, produces a sweeter loaf, and there is not as much 
danger of getting the bread too sour (which may happen in 
the straight sour dough process), if not closely watched. 
Yeast added to the sour dough secures a stronger and shorter 
fermentation, and only one sponge is used in the process, 
while, with sour dough only, two successive sponges are 
employed. The short yeast and sour dough process gives 
just enough acidity to the dough to give a good taste. 

Rye bread is also made with ferment. One Detroit 
bakery makes from 400 to 600 loaves per day by this process. 
The potato ferment is made in the afternoon (they use potato 



108 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

flour), stocked away with dry yeast, and in the morning a 
straight dough is made with ferment and more water. This 
process makes a nice, moist and sweet loaf and sells well. 
In other bakeries, the left-over pieces of rye and wheat 
dough which accumulate during the day from the dough- 
mixer and the dough, are used for a sort of sour dough, for 
a start, or in place of the regular solr dough. The scraps 
are thinned down with water, and in the evening some yeast 
is added and a sponge is set with more rye flour; the rye 
dough is made from this sponge afterwards. This method 
works all right, but care must be taken not to add too much 
old dough, and also to take the dough young, otherwise it 
is apt to make a dry, flat loaf and the bread cracks easily 
in baking. 

Some bakers set a sponge with compressed yeast and rye 
flour and let the sponge drop twice. The sponge is made 
very slack, and contains two-thirds of the water, and the 
other third part of the water is put on for the dough. Let- 
ting the sponge drop twice gives it a little more acidity to 
the dough. This process would make a much better flavored 
bread if the sponge was taken on the first drop, and for 
doughing three or more pounds of old rye dough added, 
according to the amount of bread to be made; it would give 
better flavor and make a moister loaf. 

In other bakeries where only a small quantity of rye 
bread is required, bakers do not set a separate sponge for 
rye; they dip out of a broken-up wheat sponge and make the 
dough with rye flour; a piece of sour dough is added by some 
piece of sour dough is added by some bakers, which gives 
better flavor to bread made by this method. The sour 
dough process consists of a succession of sponges; every 
day a small piece of sour rye dough is left over for this 
purpose to begin with. It is important in this process to 
keep the sour dough from getting too old, because when 
too old it becomes putrid and loses strength. Where rye 
bread is not made every day, or where sour dough is kept 
over from Saturday to Monday, we used to work plenty of 
rye flour with some salt in the piece of dough kept over, 
and make a very stiff dough, and rolled this in a well- 
dusted flour bag and kept in a cold place till required. (In 
southern Germany the sour dough is kept in a liquid state, 
it is thinned with cold water and kept in a cold place.) 
Only a small quantity is required for a start; this is fresh- 
ened up once or twice before it is made into the first and 
second sponge, after which the final dough is made. For 
instance, to make a batch of ioo pounds of rye flour 



RYE BREAD 109 

into bread the procedure is as follows : Two pounds of sour 
dough are freshened up with one quart of water and one 
pound of rye flour into a soft sponge at about 75 to 80 
degrees Fahr. After three hours add two more quarts of 
water and about six pounds of flour and make this into a 
medium firm sponge, this is called "grund sour." In from 
five to six hours this will be ready for the second sponge 
or "voll sour." For this second sponge add fifteen quarts 
of water and with about forty pounds of flour make a soft 
sponge. This sponge will be ready in from three to three 
and one-half hours and drop. For the dough add fifteen 
quarts of water, about one and one-half pounds of salt and 
about fifty-two pounds of rye flour and make a smooth 
stiff dough. After the dough is made it should not be given 
much time to come on before scaling and moulding, because 
the large second sponge will cause the dough to ripen 
quickly during the time it is scaled and moulded. This 
should be done in as short a time as possible so the first 
loaves do not get too much proof before the rest is moulded. 
For a smaller batch more time can be given. This process 
of getting the sponges ready for the final dough may seem 
tedious to some readers, but the rye bread is baked gen- 
erally during the daytime, while breads and rolls are baked 
at night, the freshening-up and setting first and second 
sponge is done during the night, this is particularly so where 
there is only one oven. 



In the large rye bread bakeries, where they bake many 
batches per day, a batch is baked every two and a half to three 
hours. A larger "frund sour" and less water on the "voll 
sour" with a moderately warm temperature ripens sponge and 
doughs more rapidly and gets the bread ready for the oven 
in a short time. 



How to make Genuine Rye Bread. 

In a recent paper upon this same subject, Geo. Freeman, of 
Kalamazoo, an expert baker, had the following to say upon 
how to make genuine rye bread. 

During my career as journeyman baker, working in 
different shops, I have found there were hardly two who 
made rye bread precisely the same. But although they 
work different ways the result aimed at was the same. 



110 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Some got it pretty regularly and others did not. But since 
giving the subject a little extra thought I see where I and 
others have worked very much in the dark, and during the 
course of my remarks I shall endeavor to throw as much 
light on the subject as I possibly can, from the viewpoint 
of a baker, to bakers, and so enable you (who do not al- 
ready) to see it as clearly as I do myself. I have here, 
gentlemen, two loaves of what I consider genuine rye 
bread, the formula for which has never given me any trou- 
ble since I adopted it. I will tell you first how I made them 
and the why and wherefore afterwards. 

We will take for example a six gallon dough for a 125 
pound batch. From the previous day's rye sponge, I have 
saved one pound of sponge in the crock and kept it in the 
ice box, so the first thing I do is to take half a pint of 
water and skim milk and bring it up to required tempera- 
ture; and add to the one one pound of sponge in the crock 
and stir in sufficient rye flour to make a little stiff dough, 
the temperature of which must be from 92 to 95 degrees, 
and let stand until the sponge is ready. 

Next take half an ounce of hops and boil about 20 
minutes in two quarts of water; strain off the hops, saving 
the liquor for the sponge. 

Next I prepared the blend of flour taking 40 per cent. 
blended Wisconsin rye; 20 per cent, pure black Wisconsin 
rye; 40 per cent, low grade spring. 

We now come to the sponge, making a six gallon dough. 
I take four gallons for the sponge, being two-thirds of total 
liquor in the sponge and one-third or two gallons at dough- 
ing stage. 

I take three and one-half gallons of water (at required 
temperature); seven ounces of yeast, two quarts of hop 
liquor, twenty-eight pounds of prepared blend of flour, about 
one-third of total required. 

Mix thoroughly. Temperature when mixed 80 degrees in 
summer; 84 degrees in winter. 

You will notice I allow seven pounds of flour to the 
gallon of water in the sponge, which makes it medium soft, 
causing it to show the drop good. A stiff rye sponge will 
sometimes hold up on top until it is completely rotten. On 
this account I have water and flour weighed accurate for 
rye sponge. 

The sponge is usually ready in three and a half to four 
hours. I give it a full drop and regulate how far it comes up 
the second time by the strength of the flour. In this in- 



RYE BREAD 111 

stance the sponge took one full drop and had risen half way 
up the second time when I took it. I have already had to 
give the sponge the second full drop when using very 
strong flour. 

Now we come to the doughing stage: Two gallons 
water (about 10 degrees lower temperature than required 
for sponge; two pounds of sour from crock; one pound eleven 
ounces of salt; 50 pounds of the same blend of flour as used 
in the sponge. Mix good and thorough. The^ temperature 
should be about 80 degrees in summer when finished, and 84 
in winter. 

I cover it up and allow to stand until when I push my 
fist well into it and withdraw quickly, it recedes slightly in- 
stead of resisting. It is generally one and a half to two 
hours in getting ready. I then throw it out on the table 
and have it scaled, rounded up, made into loaves, set in 
boxes, dusted with corn meal, with the crease down and set 
away to prove. When the loaves had risen or increased in 
bulk about 50 per cent, we washed them over with boiled corn 
starch and water, and set them in the oven to bake; the 
oven being as near 400 degrees as we can get it, with steam 
running in. The steam is left running in until the loaf is 
done rising, then we shut it off and open the steam damper 
a few minutes. A few minutes before we commence to 
draw we turn the steam on again to glaze the crust, which 
does away with washing after it comes out of the oven. 
We let it bake until it a good rich brown and gives a firm 
sound when rapped with the knuckles. The result of this 
description you see in these two loaves. 

Now, gentlemen, I will endeavor to tell you in as short 
and plain a way as I know how why I did or did not do 
certain things. 

I will take the sour first: That is the cause of endless 
trouble to most bakers, and many have stopped using it 
altogether. The idea is to produce just a little acid taste 
to the bread and still retain the full, sweet rye flavor, a 
kind of "bitter sweet" as one may say. People who like a 
little cf it in their rye bread would be the first ones to 
distain sour and flavorless rye bread from over-fermentation. 
And I would not blame them either. So the old fashioned 
idea of adding sour is an excellent one, if conducted rightly. 
And I find when it is done right it contains a high per cent, 
of lactic acid — the same bacillus the farmers and dairymen 
develop by letting their milk sour before churning to give 
a flavor to their butter and cheese. The same bacillus gives 



112 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

the acid taste to buttermilk and cottage cheese, and what 
German does not like them? Now milk may be said to be 
the home of lactic bacillus; that is why you heard me say 
add water and skim milk. The ideal temperature for its 
development is 95 degrees. You notice milk turns sour very 
quickly during hot weather; that is the reason. 

Do not make the sour over night, as at the conclusion 
of the lactic ferment others, undesirable, may commence and 
cause you endless trouble. 

Do not put the sour in the sponge and think to save 
a little yeast that way. It may turn your whole sponge sour, 
and spoil your bread. If you want a little more acid taste 
to the bread, use a little more sour, and vice versa. 

You will notice I use a little hops (or rather hop liquor) 
in the sponge. The reason is to keep the sponge as pure 
and sweet as possible. Rye flour differs from wheat flour 
in that there is in rye flour scarcely any of what we call 
gluten. It analyzes a higher content of albumenoids than 
the average wheat flour, but they are nearly all soluble in 
water, and therefore, ready for easy assimilation by bacteria, 
and as it is this the proteids bacteria thrive on they have an 
easy chance to start a very undesirable fermentation, unless 
something is used to hold them in check. Therefore, I ad- 
vise using a little hops which will do it effectually. 

Now we come to the doughing stage again: We have 
kept our sponge in good condition and it is ready. We 
must still keep the dough cool and maintain the alcoholic 
fermentation throughout, but here we do not need to use 
any hops, even though we have the sour, as here we have 
the best retarder of all, plenty of salt, which not only brings 
out the flavor, but holds in check all foreign ferments, as 
long as there is any food left for the yeast to thrive and 
work on. So be sure to take your dough as soon as you 
know it is ready. 

Regarding the blending of flour, gentlemen^ everybody 
knows the blend of flour to make the loaf that his trade de- 
mands. Some places they demand a big loaf and the baker 
uses more spring; some places they do not trouble about 
size, and the baker used less spring and more rye. 

I think I have said sufficient, so in conclusion let me 
remind you: Keep your sponge cool, use plenty of good 
yeast, do not let your sour get too old, keep your dough cool, 
use plenty of salt, and do not have it wait when you know 
it is ready and you will have no trouble in making Genuine 
Rye Bread. 



MALT EXTRACT IN BREAD- 
MAKING 



What is known in the bakers' trade as malt extract is a 
natural cereal sugar syrup made by dissolving wholly or 
partially malted cereals in warm water, and evaporating 
the extract thus formed to a thick syrup. 

Used in connection with bread-making it is a positive 
benefit in many ways. 

One of the most vital points in good bread-making is to 
permit fermentation to proceed just far enough to ripen 
the dough without injuring the delicate flavor of the gluten 
in the flour. Sugar to some extent injures this delicate 
flavor, giving the bread a slight acidy smell which is avoided 
when malt extract is used. With sugar you also get a dead 
brown color and a crust that will soften, whereas malt 
extract gives a lively, snappy brown that will retain its 
crispness, usually lacking when sugar is used. 

Malt extract will shorten up tne time of the doughs in 
hastening fermentation and giving more life with less yeast, 
and if handled properly will produce a loaf superior in every 
respect. 

The writer has watched carefully the growth of a great 
many doughs during the course of fermentation, both with 



11* BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

sugar and malt, and while the malt process is shorter it is 
much more gentle than the sugar and gives a more compact 
dough from start to finish. It will also save the baker con- 
siderable money in the course of a year, as it saves sugar 
and cuts down yeast and you can almost if not entirely cut 
out shortening. 

Top much malt should not be used, as it is a powerful 
factor in a dough and might defeat the purpose for which it 
is used. From one pint to one quart of 120 deg. malt to the 
barrel is a good proportion. Good results are obtained with 
one pint malt, one pound yeast, eight quarts milk to the 
barrel of flour. No sugar and no shortening. By a different 
process with the use of malt, one and a half barrels of flour 
can be worked with one pound of yeast, obtaining the best 
of results. Of course, some flours require more than the 
pint of malt to the barrel, but those flours would also re- 
quire more sugar. A quart, however, may with safety be 
used to the barrel of flour. 



A vast amount has been written on the subject of malt 
extract, many writers disagreeing as to its value. The fol- 
lowing article by Henry A. Kohman, of the Fellowship in 
Baking Technology in the University of Kansas, covers the 
subject pretty thoroughly, pro and con: 

It will be remembered by members of the National 
Association that last year the Executive Committee estab- 
lished a Fellowship in Baking Technology in the University 
of Kansas, and that Henry A. Kohman, of Lawrence, Kan- 
sas, was appointed to this position for a term of two years. 
The agreement between the association, on one hand, and 
the University of Kansas and Mr. Kohman, on the other, 
was that Mr. Kohman should devote his time and best atten- 
tion in an endeavor to solve some of the chemical problems 
which so often perplex the baker, the result of his re- 
searches to be the property of the association, on terms to 
be mutually agreed upon. 

At the February meeting of the Executive Committee, 
in Kansas City, Mr. Kohman was present and made a 
verbal report on the work so far accomplished by him, and 
was instructed to prepare a paper on the subject for publi- 
cation in the trade press, which paper is given herewith. 
In transmitting his paper Mr. Kohman says that he has 



MALT EXTRACT 115 

spent much time in collecting publications relating to the 
science of bread-making, in order to get a thorough under- 
standing of the whole subject, and that in order to be prac- 
tical as well as theoretical he has spent part of his time in 
the bakeshop. 

The paper is as follows: 



The Use of Malt Extract in Bread-Making. 

When the National Association of Master Bakers made 
it possible for me to visit a number of the best bakeries in 
this country and Canada, I met with frequent inquiries in 
regard to the rrialt extract question. Some bakers used it 
to good advantage, but the majority used little or none. 
Looking over the formulas which I obtained through the 
kindness of the bakers in these different baking establish- 
ments, I find that only about five or six per cent, of the 
bread contains malt extract. 



Practical Experiments. 

In order to throw some light upon this question I 
undertook a series of experiments, the result of which I 
give below. 

Preliminary experiments were made with five different 
commercial brands of malt extract. Their reducing-sugar 
content and diastatic activity were determined. The per- 
centage of reducing sugar showed no great variation and 
needs no further comment. The diastatic activity, however, 
varied considerably. By the diastatic activity is meant the 
number of times its (own) weight of maltose a given quan- 
tity of extract will produce when allowed to act upon acid- 
free soluble starch for one hour at a temperature of 40 de- 
grees C. (104 degrees F.). 

The activities of the five extracts mentioned above are 
as follows: No. 1 — 8.56, No. 2 — 1571, No. 3 — 8.60, No. 4 — 
Q.69, No. 5 — 20.13 These results were obtained under similar 
conditions, and are, therefore, strictly comparable. It is 
quite evident that these extracts have different sugar-pro- 
ducing values. No. 5, for example, will produce 2.35 times 
as much sugar as No. 1. 



116 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Malt Extract vs. Sugar. 

Having determined the relative diastatic values of the 
malt extracts, it was desirable to determine their values as 
sugar producers in bread-making; and to see if the saccha- 
rine material in bread could not be supplied cheaper by 
means of malt extract than by the use of granulated sugar, 
as is commonly done. Five different breads were made, all 
conditions and ingredients being kept as nearly similar as 
possible, except the kind and quantity of saccharine material 
used. After the breads were made and dried the percentages 
of reducing sugars were determined. The tabulated results 
follow: 

PVt'ge 
Grams Saccharine Sugar 

Flour. Material Pound. 

No. i 800 20 gms. cane sugar 5 . 37 

No. 2 800 None 3.64 

No. 3 800 8 gms. malt extract No. 5 6.00 

No. 4 800 8 gms. malt extract No. 1 5.68 

No. 5 800 1 gm. malt extract No. 5 and 30 

gms. cooked flour 5.27 



The percentages found are calculated on the dry bread. 
The results reveal several interesting ang significant facts. 
The eight grams of the lowest diastatic extract (activity 
8.56) produced more sugar in the bread than the twenty 
grams of cane sugar. It is also evident that the lowest dias- 
tatic extract produced nearly as much sugar as the highest. 
The ratio of their activities is 8.56 to 20.13, while the ratio 
of the percentages of sugar produced is only 5.68 to 6.00. 
We might expect that the extract with an activity of 20.13 
would produce more sugar than the one having an activity 
of only 8.56, but the resuts show that it did not. The ex- 
planation seems to be that both have an activity sufficiently 
high to convert into sugar and dextrin all the starch that is 
freed from the cellulose by having the cell walls broken, and 
neither attacks the starch granules that are still enclosed 
by celluose. 

It is a quite significant fact, too, that the one gram of 
malt extract No. 5, together with thirty grams cooked flour, 
produced nearly as much sugar in the bread as the twenty 
grams of granulated sugar. This bread, No. 5, in addition 
to having the sugar supplied in the cheapest way, had its 



MALT EXTRACT 117 

moisture and freshness retained longer than the other 
breads. 

The bread having no saccharine material added showed 
on analysis to have 3.64 per cent, of reducing sugar. Some 
of this sugar was in the flour, but the larger part of it was 
formed by the enzymes in the flour during the fermentation 
period and the baking of the bread. 

Knowing the percentage of sugar and the weight of dry 
bread produced from the 800 grams of flour, I calculated the 
amount of sugar in the total quantity of bread produced in 
each baking. Then by deducting the amount of sugar in 
bread No. 2, which had no sugar adde, from the amount in 
the other breads, the total amount of sugar produced by the 
malt extract was obtained. In this way it was found that the 
malt extract Na. 5 produced 2.65 times its weight of sugar 
when added directly to the dough as is commonly done, and 
that it yielded 14.67 times its own weight of sugar when a 
portion of the flour was cooked, as in experiment 5; or it 
produced 5.5 times as much sugar when added to flour, the 
starch of which had been gelatinized by cooking, as it did 
when added to the raw flour. The cooked flour was cooled 
to 120 degrees F. and then the malt extract added. The 
results show that while malt extract produces considerable 
sugar when added directly to the raw flour, it produces much 
more sugar when a portion of the flour is cooked. 

Now, one might suppose that the heat of the oven would 
certainly gelatinize a portion of the starch, and thus aid the 
diastase in the conversion of the starch into sugar, and avoid 
the necessity of cooking a portion of the flour. But when 
we consider the fact that the starch does not begin to gelat- 
inize until the temperature is raised to 152 degrees, which 
is already about 30 degrees above the most favorable tem- 
perature for the activity of the diastase, and the fact that 
the diastase is killed at a temperature of about 175 degrees 
F., we can readily see why the gelatinization of starch in 
the oven is of little assistance to the diastase in the con- 
version of starch into sugar. 

This also throws some light upon the fact that the low 
diastatic extract produced approximately as much sugar as 
the one having the high activity. As stated above, both of 
the extracts, when used to the extent of one per cent., figured 
on the flour, have sufficient diastase to convert the broken 
starch granules into sugar, and the higher activity then can 
be of value only in the conversion of starch into sugar after 
gelatinization of a portion of the starch by the heat of the 



118 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

oven, and then only while the temperature rises from 152 
degrees R, at which temperature the starch is gelatinized, 
until it reaches about 175 degrees, when the diastase is killed, 
and under very unfavorable conditions, for the temperature 
is far above the most favorable activity of the diastase. 

While the high diastatic extract seems to yield but little 
more sugar than the one of low activity when added directly 
to the raw flour, it has a decided advantage when a portion 
of the flour is cooked, for then the amounts of sugar pro- 
duced by different extracts will bear much more nearly the 
same ratios to each other as the activities of the extracts. 

Besides supplying saccharine material in the bread, malt 
extract has other advantages. In addition to the sugar it 
contains mineral salts, peptones, and other protein materials 
which stimulate fermentation. These proteins, besides 
being a source of nitrogenous food for the yeast, act upon 
the proteins of the flour, making them assimilable by the 
yeast. 

In addition to the amylolytic ferment, the diastase, which 
converts starch into sugar, malt extract contains proteolytic 
ferments which act upon the gluten much as the ferments of 
the yeast. These ferments aid the yeast in preparing the 
gluten, and hence a smaller quantity of yeast can be used 
when malt extract takes the place of granulated sugar. In 
other words, the dough matures quicker, owing to the pres- 
ence of these ferments in the malt extract. While the 
extracts with the higher diastatic activity produce only a 
little more sugar than the lower diastatic extracts, they act 
upon the gluten much more vigorously, and consequently 
the dough matures much sooner when a high diastatic malt 
is used. This latter, then, is better suited to hard flours, 
while the former can be used to good advantage with weak 
flours. 

The dextrin formed by the diastase gives a very desira- 
ble color to the crust of the bread, which is often lacking 
when no malt extract is" used. In addition to these advan- 
tages, malt extract produces an agreeable flavor, and this is, 
perhaps, one of the best arguments for its use. 

From the table above it is evident that a given weight 
of malt extract goes much farther toward producing sugar 
in bread than does the same weight of cane sugar, but there 
has been nothing said of prices. By a few calculations I 
think we can show, approximately, how much the baker can 
save in dollars and cents by using malt extract in place of 
cane sugar. We will assume the flour to be worth $4.50 per 



MALT EXTRACT 119 

barrel or 2.29 cents per pound, cane sugar 5 cents per pound 
and malt extract 7 cents per pound. As a basis of com- 
parison we will take 100 pounds of cane sugar, which at 5 
cents per pound will be worth $5.00. As stated above, one 
part of malt extract will produce 2.65 times its weight of 
sugar when added to the dough directly and 14.67 times its 
weight of sugar when a portion of the flour is cooked. Then 
it will take 100 divided by 2.65 equals 37.7 pounds of malt 
extract to produce 100 pounds of sugar by the first method. 
Since malt extract contains sixty per cent, or more of sugar, 
the 37.7 pounds would supply 22.6 pounds of sugar and there 
would be used up 77.4 pounds of starch from the flour to 
make up the 100 pounds of flour. The 77.4 pounds of flour 
at 2.29 cents per pound would cost $1.77 and the 37.7 pounds 
malt extract at 7 cents per pound would cost $2.64, making 
a total of $4.41 for the 100 pounds of sugar, against $5.00, the 
cost of the cane sugar. 

By the second method, in which a portion of the flour 
was cooked, it would take 100 divided by 14.67 equals 6.81 
pounds of malt extract to produce 100 pounds of sugar. This 

would contain 4.1 pounds of sugar and there would be used 
up 95-9 pounds of starch from the flour to make up the 100 
pounds of sugar. The cost of the 6.81 pounds malt extract 
would be $0.50 and the cost of the flour $2.20, a total of 
$2.70. Then there would be a saving of $5.00 minus 4.41 
equals $0.59 by the first method and $5.00 minus $2.70 equals 
$2.30 by the second method on every hundred pounds of 
cane sugar used. So far we have considered only the saccha- 
rine material. The cane sugar, of course, contains nothing 
but saccharine material. The malt extract, however, in 
addition to the sugar, contains about seven per cent, of 
protein material, which has not been mentioned, and which 
is an item of considerable importance, and also mineral salts 
which stimulate yeast fermentation. Besides, the malt 
extract gives a color to the crust of the bread and a flavor 
which is quite desirable. When the starch of the flour is 
converted into sugar, the gluten remains and makes the 
bread that much richer in protein, which is one of the essen- 
tial constituents of white bread; also it absorbs several times 
its weight of water and thus increases the yield of the bread. 

It is quite evident that there are many points to be con- 
sidered in connection with the use of malt extract in bread 
baking. Most of the evidences, however, seem to indicate 
that it can be used to good advantage. The principle that 
"If a little is good, more is better, ,, will not apply, however. 



120 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Two pounds to the barrel may give splendid results, while 
four pounds to the barrel may cause a miserable, soggy loaf 
of bread. The amounts that can be successfully used depend 
upon the strength of the flour and the diastatic activity of 
the extract. With a weak flour one must use low diastatic 
extracts, while with strong flours one may use larger quan- 
ties of extracts with a greater diastatic power. 






COTTON SEED OIL IN 
BREAD-MAKING 



BY DAVID CHIDLOW 



Cotton seed oil has received so much attention from 
bread makers in the past few years that it would seem there 
was nothing left unsaid regarding its advantages in bread- 
making; but thoughtful bakers will be alert to learn any- 
thing new regarding the properties of oil for shortening, 
which will make them better bakers by using shortenings 
with an understanding of their properties in bread-making. 



Why Are Shortenings Used? 

Shortenings are used in bread-making to accomplish 
certain definite results, the most common being: first, the 
coating of each little cell in the loaf whereby the moisture 
is retained in the loaf, preventing its escape exactly in the 
manner that waxed or oiled paper would prevent the escape 
of moisture from a loaf around which it was wrapped. Cut 
a good loaf after it has been baked about twelve hours, 
examine it in full daylight, and notice the sheen reflected 
from each rounded cell. This sheen is greater in loaves 
which have been properly fermented, using the right pro- 
portion of shortening, than in the loaves where the shorten- 
ing was either deficient in amount or of improper character. 
Of this matter we will say more further on. Secondly, the 



122 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

use of shortening whitens the bread. Thirdly, a part of the 
shortening combines with the gluten to make it elastic, and 
thereby expands more readily and makes a reasonably large 
loaf. All of these points you can test very readily by making 
up small batches, using ioo ounces of flour. Take a reason- 
ably good spring wheat patent flour and use 6 pounds 4 
ounces of flour, ij4 ounces of yeast, i 1 /* ounces of salt, 2 
ounces of sugar and 3 pounds 12 ounces of water, taking the 
water at such a temperature so that you will have the dough 
at 84. Make up the dough and place it in a wooden pail, 
previously oiled, then cover the dough. At the end of two 
hours take the dough out and fold it over two or three times. 
At the end of three hours do the same thing again; again 
at three and one-half hours. See that dough temperature is 
maintained as near 84 as possible. At four hours scale it 
off into sizes for your pan, and prove about sixty minutes 
in a proving chamber having a temperature of 90. 

So far I have said nothing about the quantity of oil to 
be used. This is because I want you to realize what an 
influence the amount of shortening has on dough and its 
expansion. In one dough of the size given above use 1 
ounce of oil; in another use 2 ounces; in the third use 3 
ounces. Add the oil to the sugar and salt, rub down 
smoothly until it is a creamy mass; then add a little of the 
water and a little of the flour and rub down again. Do this 
with each of the doughs so that the oil will be uniformly 
mixed in the dough. You will note that the texture of the 
loaf containing the least amount of shortening is broken. 
The loaf will not really stand the amount of proof that is 
given to it, because the gluten will not stretch sufficiently 
to hold in the gas. The loaf containing the 2 ounces of 
shortening will be improved very much, and the one con- 
taining the 3 ounces will not only be improved in texture and 
appearance, but will retain the moisture very much longer, 
as you will find, if you will put a loaf from each of the 
doughs aside for two days, weighing before and after 
standing. 



Each Shortening in Its Proper Place. 

In a number of experiments at Chidlow Institute, Chi- 
cago, seven years ago, it was found that every kind of fat 
that could be used in bread-making had a character of its 
own which it exhibited in various ways. In fact, they varied 
so widely as to suggest much deeper research than was at 



COTTON SEED OIL 123 

first contemplated at that time. In making up a number of 
doughs, small amounts of each shortening was added to the 
loaves, increasing the amount until a proportion of 40 
pounds per barrel of flour was used, the lowest amount of 
shortening used being 2 pounds per barrel of flour. The 
loaves from each of these batches were placed aside with 
a view of finding out how much of the shortening was 
brought to the outside of the loaf by escape of the moisture, 
and it was found that nearly all shortenings came to the 
surface or crust of the loaf in different proportions. These 
tests were made many times over, and always with the 
same results. With some shortenings the amount of fat 
brought out was nearly one-half of what was added; in 
others it would be less than one-fourth, and in some it was 
as high as three-fourths. Evidently the shortening that 
would carry three-fourths of the quantity to the crust was 
unfitted for bread-making by that particular method and 
with that particular flour. 

The details of these experiments are of no service here. 
Thev are only referred to as indicating a difference of result 
obtained by the use of different shortenings. The same 
thing was noted in making experimental doughs. These 
were made of the same weight of flour, yeast, sugar, short- 
ening, and water. They were then placed in a glass jar 
which was marked off so as to give clear readings of the 
expansion of each dough. The jars were then placed in a 
water, bath maintained at a uniform temperature, and cov- 
ered with glass to keep the surface of the dough moist. Some 
of the shortenings used permitted the doughs to rise very 
much higher than where other shortenings were used, and 
it made no difference how often these doughs were made 
and the tests repeated. The shortenings that permitted a 
very high expansion of the dough on one test always gave 
a high expansion in another test, so that the results were 
uniform. This gave us the very information we were in 
search of, showing us that we must find the best method for 
each kind of shortening, and for each kind of flour. 



Best Method of Using Cotton Seed Oil. 

The following instructions are based upon a part of 
these experiments under the following specific conditions: 
In the first place it must be understood that a method of 
making bread is best suited for a particular flour, and that 



124 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

alteration of flour usually requires an alteration in the 
method, or at least a modification of the method. Many of 
the spring wheat patent flours being sold are second patents, 
and as such they are best m#de into doughs by use of 
sponges. Take, then, spring wheat second patent flour and 
a four to six hour sponge. One-half of the total oil should 
be used in the sponge and the other half in the dough. This 
brings shortening in accomplishing the expansion of the loaf, 
in giving a clear whiteness to the loaf, and a bright sheeny 
coating of the cells making up the structure of the loaf. The 
average amount of shortening used for pan bread in the 
United States is five pounds per barrel of flour. Assuming 
this proportion, then, at least one-half pound of shortening 
can be discarded without any loss of the shortening power. 

The foregoing instructions are not applicable to other 
flours than of the type given, nor can they be used properly 
with straight doughs. — Cotton Seed. 



CORN FLAKES USED IN 
BREAD 



Corn flakes are made from the starchy part of the maize 
kernel. The starch of corn itself has little value for the 
bread baker in its crude form. It is insoluble in cold water, 
and can only be dissolved by the disintegration of the or- 
ganized structures of the granules. 

On being boiled with water it forms a gelatinous look- 
ing mass, and dissolves. 

When examined after boiling the starch granules are 
seen to have broken up, a small part remaining in the liquid 
as minute insoluble particles. 

In this^ condition starch is very susceptible to the action 
of the bodies known as ferments. 

Bearing this in mind, this same change takes place in 
the process employed in the manufacture of corn flakes, that 
is, the crude starch granules have become completely gelat- 
inized. 

The value of gelatinized starch as^ formed in corn flakes, 
especially when used in connection with a small quantity of 
malt extract or malt flour, is not sufficiently understood by 
many bakers, and it is hoped that these few remarks will 
make the matter clearer and be^ of interest to a" bakers 
who are desirous to increase their knowledge in the works 
of their chosen vocation. 

It has conclusively been shown in text-books, that cooked 
starch, i. e., corn flakes, are more susceptible to "saccharifica- 
tion," that is, sugar is sometimes called saccharum or sac- 
charine matter, hence the term which is applied to this 
change that the starch thus undergoes. This conversion 
is due to the ferment known as diastase found in malt and 
has the power to convert the gelatinized starches of the 



126 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

corn flakes into maltose. Maltose, on the other hand, is 
changed by the ferment zymose, contained in yeast, into 
glucose. 

This body is of interest to the baker as being the ulti- 
mate form to which all sugars are changed, and in this 
state is readily broken down into carbonic acid gas and 
alcohol, which causes doughs to rise. It follows then that 
corn flakes are a very valuable article to the baker on ac- 
count of its gelatinized starch, its low cost, absolute sterility, 
its purity, and, above all, its great moisture-absorbing 
qualities. 

Its use in connection with malt may eliminate the use 
of cane sugar entirely, and still furnish all the saccharine nec- 
essary to give bread the desired sweet flavor and taste. In 
order to make this clear, the result of the following experi- 
ments will corroborate the above statement. After the 
bread was baked and dried and ground the quantities of re- 
ducing sugar were determined by chemical test: 

No. i — ioo gm. flour, 58 c. c. water, 2.5 gm. cane sugar 
gave 5.5 gm. saccharine. 

No. 2 — 100 gm. flour, 56 c. c. water, no cane sugar, gave 
3.9 gm. saccharine. 

No. 3 — 100 gm. flour, 62 c. c. water, .125 gm. malt, 3 
gm. corn flakes, gave 5.4 gm. saccharine. 

The different quantities of water were increased to give 
dough equal viscosity. 

It must be remembered, in making comparisons from 
this table, that the saccharine matter in the bread is pro- 
duced in one instance, by the action of the diastase contained 
in the malt extract, in the other by the action of the enzymes 
in the flour upon the partial disrupted starch granules of 
the flour itself, and in the third instance by the cane sugar 
used. 

The results obtained from these experiments are in- 
teresting and worthy of careful consideration, inasmuch as 
J /8 gm. of malt with 3 gm. of corn flakes (perfectly gelat- 
inized starch) produced practically as much saccharine mat- 
ter as when 2^ gm. of cane sugar was used. In other words 
furnishes the bread sufficient saccharine matter at the least 
possible cost. In addition to this the corn flakes absorbed 
twice its weight of moisture in the dough, thereby increas- 
ing bulk, a decided gain to the baker. 

For the sake of argument, it is admitted that the same 
chemical action takes place when using any other highly 
starchy product which has bren cooked. Corn flakes, how- 



CORN FLAKES IN BREAD 127 

ever, eliminates any necessity for previous boiling, since it is 
already prepared in its manufacture and is very sensitive 
to the attack of diastasic action. 

It is also a fact that some of the starch in the flour, 
which has become disrupted during the milling, is gelat- 
inized by the heat of the oven during baking, giving dias- 
tase opportunity to convert some of the starch into sugar. 
But since raw starch does not gelatinize until the tempera- 
ture has _ reached 150 degrees F., which temperature is 
already higher than the most favorable one for diastasic ac- 
tion, and the intervening time during which the temperature 
of the baking is increased to 175 degrees F. (a killing tem- 
perature for diastase), is very short, a relatively small 
amount of the gelatinized starch is converted and the baker 
therefore is compelled to add the more costly article, cane 
sugar, in order to produce the desired amount of saccharine 
matter in his bread. This fully explains the difference of 
saccharine matter found in experiments No. 2 and No. 3. 

It further shows that bread containing gelatinized starch 
as found in corn flakes is fully as good a sugar producer as 
when using cane sugar, and, as before said, at the smallest 
possible cost. 

To produce the maximum amount of sugar from corn 
flakes the proportions of malt extract and corn flakes as 
given, should be mixed in about two gallons of tepid water 
for each barrel of flour to be made into dough, at a tempera- 
ture of about 140 degrees F. Allow it to remain at this con- 
stant temperature for iy 2 hours. In this time nearly all of the 
gelatinized starch of the corn flakes has become converted 
into maltose. In practice this would show that if 100 lbs. 
of cane sugar at a cost of $5 be used in bread work the same 
saccharine matter could be supplanted by using 116 lbs. 
of corn flake, a price of about $3.50 plus 18c worth of malt, 
making a total cost of $3.68, and shows a saving of $1.32 
where 100 lbs. of sugar is employed. 

Corn flakes, besides furnishing saccharine matter, has 
other advantages. It contains some mineral salts and pro- 
teids which are very acceptable nitrogenous foods and readily 
assimilated by the yeast, causing a rapid and vigorous fer- 
mentation. 

They also prepare and soften the gluten, giving to the 
doughs that much desired velvety feeling, and the maxi- 
mum expansion in the oven. Corn flakes and malt extract 
may also be used as a short ferment and makes it possible 
to decrease the amount of yeast usually used without affect- 



128 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

ing the quality of the bread. 

A formula for pan bread which has been used for years 
and is giving good results is as follows: 

Water, i qt; malt extract, .40 oz.; salt, 1 oz.; corn 
flakes. 1 oz.; lard, 1.75 oz.; yeast, .33 oz.; dry milk, .75 oz.; 
flour, 3 lbs. 7 oz. 

Of course, this can be increased to any amount. 

The directions are: Take % part of the water to be used 
at temperature of 82 degrees F. and in it dissolve the corn 
flakes, malt extract and yeast. Let this stand 20 minutes to 
ferment. It will have risen considerably in this time and 
fallen; then add it to the balance of the ingredients and 
make dough. 

Corn flakes give color to the crust, is an absorber of 
moisture, retains it and keeps bread fresh, and inasmuch as 
it has no pronounced flavor of its own will not predominate 
or cover up the flavor obtained from good wheat flour and 
correct fermentation. 

This would indicate a third good quality of corn flakes, 
that is, used simply as a filler for its value as a water ab- 
sorber only. 

While the above tables indicate the use of 6 lbs. of corn 
flakes to a barrel of flour, satisfactory results have been 
achieved when 10 lbs. have been added per barrel of flour. 

Much depends, however, where corn flakes are used 
simply as a filler, upon the strength of the flour. 

To conclude, I have tried to show that corn flakes can 
be used in three different ways. 

First as a sugar producer, secondly as a yeast saver, 
and thirdly as a means to increase bulk and leave it to each 
individual baker to adopt either method, and trust to have 
been instrumental in telling something that may be of value, 
if not to every baker, at least to some. 



POTATO FLOUR AND 
BREAD 



Potato flour is a yeast food. It contains gelatinized 
starch, sugar, dextim amides and mineral matter, all of the 
bodies are yeast nutrients, the first-named being converted 
into sugar by a ferment in the yeast. The analysis of pure 
imported potato flour should approximately show as fol- 
lows: Water, 10.69 per cent; protein, 6.59 per cent; fat, 0.23 
per cent; nutrious extractive matter, 78.73 per cent; fibre, 
1. 18 per cent; ash, 2.58 per cent, making in all a total of 100 
per cent. 

The extractive matter is mostly carbo-hydrates (sugar). 
The ash, the mineral matter, mostly phosphates. 

We have here three important bodies for yeast produc- 
tion — carbo-hydrates, protein and phosphates, and the last 
two, moreover, act as powerful stimulants. Owing to these 
facts, the writer thinks a closer acquaintance about the use 
of potato flour will be of some interest to the progressive 
bread baker. 

It is often said that formerly, before the introduction of 
compressed yeast, when potato ferments were mostly used, 
that bread was superior in flavor and keeping qualities than 
most of the bread baked at present. 

Furthermore, bakers of to-day find it absolutely neces- 
sary to add large quantities of sugar, lard and often milk to 
their dough to overcome the effect that compressed yeast 
has brought about. It is not the writer's intention to be- 
little the value of compressed yeast, as this product is now 
an inseparable commodity in the bakeshop. 

It is, however, possible to get back the advantages ob- 



130 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

tained from the old potato ferment process by the judicious 
use of pure potato flour. 

It eliminates entirely the old cumbersome method of 
boiling and mashing potatoes, scalding flour and setting 
away the ferment until ready for use, for five or six hours. 
Pure potato flour used in connection with a small quantity 
of diastasic malt extract will accomplish results gratifying 
to the baker and assist in cutting down cost of production. 

In the first place, the diastasic power of the malt extracts 
converts the carbo-hydrates of the potato flour into maltose, 
and if this is carried in far enough produces more than 
enough saccharine matter for any dough. Secondly, the ex- 
tractive and mineral matter of potato flour gives great assist- 
ance to the raising properties of yeast by stimulating and 
increasing yeast cells in a medium befitting their propagan- 
dation according to the laws of nature. While this may 
seem clear in theory, any baker can easily ascertain the 
above bespoken values of potato flour by practical tests. 
The following formula will be sufficient to guide the baker 
to make any size test he contemplates to make for a straight 
dough: i qt. water, .08 oz. malt extract, 1 oz. potato flour, 
.75 oz. lard, 1 oz. salt, .33 oz. yeast, 3 lb. 5 oz. spring patent 
flour. For a barrel of flour this would equal 15 gals, water, 
7 oz. malt extract, zVa lbs. potato flour, 3 lbs. lard, 3^2 lbs. 
salt, 1 J4 lbs. yeast, 196 lbs. flour. 

Weigh the potato flour into a clean tub, pour 4 gals, 
of water, at 90 degrees F., in, also the 7 oz. of malt extract, 
and mix up; then break into it the yeast and see to it that 
it is all dissolved. Cover up with a clean bag. Now get all 
your other ingredients into the mixer or trough, the bal- 
ance of the water, your salt and lard scaled off, and your 
barrel of flour ready. By this time your ferment in the tub 
will have risen, and be on the point of falling. It is then 
ready to mix all together and dough. The water should be 
tempered so as to bring the dough out between 82 and 85 
degrees F. 

Mix the dough well until clear. Allow it to stand and 
give it full proof before knocking down first time, which will 
take about 3J4 hours. When it has come up again about 
three-quarters proof knock down again. Give it another 
one-half proof in the trough and your dough should be 
ready to take; in all, S l A to 6 hours. You will find that 
potato flour makes your bread keep moist. It will give a 
rich nutty flavor and will give a much larger yield on account 
of its moisture, absorbing qualities, and on the whole make 



FERMENTATION 131 

a very satisfactory loaf. This, in the writer's estimation, is 
the best way to use potato flour in order to get best results 
at lowest cost of production. 

Potato flour may be used dry. When making straight 
dough this way the potato flour must always be sifted into 
the flour dry. The quantity to use varies according to 
strength of the flour and the baker's own ideas, say 4 to 6 
pounds for each barrel of flour. Without changing your 
usual formula, except cutting some of sugar and increasing 
water, it will produce good bread. 

If the potato flour is scalded and then cooled before 
using it will assist such as went to get a solid home-made 
loaf. 

No other ingredient, to the writer's knowledge, will 
produce bread that will compare in flavor and texture with 
the old style potato ferment bread than when employing 
pure imported potato flour judiciously, according to any of 
the above methods described, nor can any bread be made, 
considering quality, cheaper or as cheap. 



T?L> 



FERMENTATION 



A Few Remarks by E. Wilfahrt, an Authority Upon the 

Subject 

The term fermentation, as applied to baking, we find first 
described as a form of spontaneous decay, changing the 
carbohydrates contained in the dough into alcohol and diox- 
ide ^ gas. Such fermentation is termed alcoholic. Other 
varieties of fermentation also exist during the process of 
doughing, and are termed lactic, acetous, viscous and 
putrefactive. 

The process of fermentation which has for its object the 
manufacture of bread must be of alcoholic nature, containing 
H of 1 per cent, acidity in proportions of 95 per cent, lactic 
and 5 per cent, acetic. The presence of lactic fermentation 



132 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

softens the gluten, while the presence of acetic fermentation 
causes a larger expansion of the loaf. 

Of course, the larger the percentage of the acetic acid 
in proportion to the lactic acid, the larger would be the 
ultimate expansion of the finished loaf; that is, if no excess- 
ive percentage of acidity is produced. While the presence 
of acetic acid in minute proportions acts favorably on the 
expansion of the loaf, an excess of it must result in sour 
bread. Consequently, the acids contained in their proper 
proportions in the fermented dough exert a beneficial influ- 
ence, both as to the flavor of the bread and assistance in 
fermentation. 

Viscuous fermentation produces the much dreaded dis- 
ease "rope in bread/' and is really the beginning of putre- 
faction of the raw material employed. This trouble is 
caused by over-acidity in the dough and heat, or by unclean- 
liness, which generates over-acidity, or excess growth of 
microbes, and this causes rope in bread. 

Putrefaction means decomposition of materials em- 
ployed. It is a non-alcoholic ferment, and the material under- 
going putrefaction always gives out a decidedly bad odor. 

In making a dough the first point to consider, after 
proper ingredients have been selected, is the temperature of 
the dough and of the proving room. The utmost care should 
be exercised to keep the dough room at a uniform tempera- 
ture. The best temperature for dough is 78 degrees F., after 
mixing, and the temperature of the shop should be about 82 
degrees F. 

To keep a dough thus made at the proper temperature 
during the period of fermentation it is necessary to use salt 
in the proper proportions to the amount of sugar and short- 
ening added in the mixing of the dough. So that the rising 
acidity during the process of fermentation may be properly 
neutralized salt is used, first to govern the fermentation, and 
secondly, to give the bread the necessary flavor. Although 
it is generally conceded that salt retards fermentation, 
nevertheless this action is most powerful on non-alcoholic 
ferments. Consequently, salt, if used in the proper propor- 
tion, really acts as a stimulant to produce a healthy dough, 
or perfect loaf of bread. 

My experience has taught me that for plain white bread 
three ounces of salt to a gallon of water is the proper 
amount. For each two ounces of sugar and shortening 
added to a gallon of water, one-quarter ounce of salt should 
be correspondingly added, until four ounces of salt are used 
to the gallon. 



FERMENTATION 13:: 

Such a dough, therefore, will call for one-half pound 
each of sugar and shortening and four ounces of salt to each 
gallon of water. This would make a very rich home-made 
dough with a large yield, on account of its moisture retain- 
ing power. 

In adding more than one-half pound each of sugar and 
shortening to the gallon, as in making rolls and sweet 
doughs, the amount of salt must be reduced one-quarter of 
an^ ounce for each additional two ounces of sugar, and short- 
ening added to the gallon, until two ounces of salt is all that 
remains to be used to the gallon of water. From this limit 
only one-eighth of an ounce is deducted for each additional 
two ounces of sugar and shortening added. 

The amount of flour added to the gallon of liquid de- 
pends upon the class of bread to be made. It averages I2j^ 
to 15 pounds to the gallon. 

Malt extract is one of the best acquisitions in the man- 
ufacture of bread, as it is very useful in increasing the keep- 
ing qualities of the product, and gives a better flavor to the 
loaf, such as is produced by the use of milk. 

The shortening should be added after the dough is 
thoroughly incorporated with the balance of ingredients, as 
if added first, it will not give the desired results and the 
flour will not absorb the same quantity of water, as if the 
shortening were added last. 

The temperature of the bakeshop during the operation 
of molding is another important feature. The dough room 
should be kept at as uniform a temperature as possible, as 
the dough is very susceptible to changes of temperature. 

In some bakeries the water used is hard, while in other 
shops soft water is used- The character of the water used 
has as much to do with the fermentation as the temperature 
of the water. The softer the water the quicker the fermen- 
tation. Generally speaking, dough should never be made 
without the use of a thermometer to insure uniformity day 
after day. All ingredients used should be carefully weighed, 
then the so-called ill-luck in the shop will be a thing of rare 
occurrence. 



& 



Part III 



Pie Baking 



PIE BAKING 



STANDARD RECIPES 



2 


qts. 


Fresh 


Fruit. 




i J A 


; ib. 


Sugar. 


I 


qt. 


Water. 


l / 


2 oz. 


2 

Salt. 


oz. 


Corn Starch. 



The above formula is adapted to the following pies: 
Apple, peach, cherry, raspberry, strawberry, gooseberry, 
huckleberry, currant and rhubarb. For the apple, peach and 
currant pies use i oz. of corn starch instead of 2 oz. For 
the rhubarb pie use only i pt. of water and about a half 
pound less sugar. From i to !^ oz. of spice is added to 
the apple and peach mixture. 

When green fruit is used it should be boiled about 2 
minutes. Rhubarb requires more time. Dried and evapo- 
rated fruit should also be boiled for a few minutes. If the 
fruit is not boiled it will run and stick to the plate. 

After boiling, add the sugar and flavor and mix thor- 
oughly. The corn starch may be omitted if desired. Before 
placing pies in oven wash lightly with milk or egg wash. 



Pie Crust. 

Use 2 lbs. lard and 4 lbs. of flour. Rub together lightly 
but thoroughly. The whole secret of a good crust is just 
the proper mixing. If worked too hard the result is poor. 



138 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Furthermore, great care should be taken not to put in too 
much water. This is very important. Cotton oil, butter or 
other shortening may be used instead of the lard. Pies are 
better if the filling is put in cold. Always keep the short- 
ening in the ice box before using. 



Custard Pie. 

1Y2 lb. Sugar. Y 2 lb. Flour. 

25 Eggs. 6 qts. Milk. 

Add a little salt. If desired corn starch may be used 
instead of flour. This pie is filled in the oven. 



Lemon Pie. 

5 qts. Water. 10 Eggs. 

4 lbs. Sugar. 1 doz. Lemons. 

54. lb. Corn Starch. 
The corn starch may be omitted if desired. Some use 
about y 2 a pound of lard and butter. 






Rhubarb Pie. 

3 lbs. Rhubarb. iH .lbs. Sugar. 

Corn Starch as desired. 
The rhubarb should be cut in small pieces after it is 
peeled and allowed to stand over night with the sugar. 
Strain off juice and boil for a minute, then add the rhubarb 
and let boil for 2 or 3 minutes. The corn starch is fre- 
quently omitted. 

Pumpkin Pie. 

4 lbs. Mashed Pumpkin. 4 oz. Flour. 
1 lb. Sugar. 2 qts. Milk. 
8 Eggs. 

Salt, ginger and cinnamon. 

When cooked, drain pumpkins dry and mash thoroughly. 
Add sugar, ginger, etc. Mix flour and milk and add this to 
the pumpkin. See that the mixture is smooth and without 
lumps. This pie is filled in the oven. 



PIE BAKING 139 

Mince Meat. 

6 !bs. Currants. 4 lbs. Raisins. 

i lb. Suet. i pt. Brandy. 

8 lbs. Apples. 2 pts. Cider. 

12 lbs. Beef. 4 oz. Allspice. 

3 lbs. Sugar. 4 oz. Cloves. 

Variations of the above are made in many ways. Some 
add citron and i or 2 qts. of molasses. About I oz. of 
pepper may also be used. Lemon and orange peel is fre- 
quently used. Tripe is sometimes substituted for beef. If 
desired a little cinnamon or nutmeg may be added. 



& 



GOOD PIE AND PIE FILLING 



By Richard Voigt, Terre Haute, Ind. 

The first profit in pie lays in the filler, or thickness for 
the fruit. The public prefers a full pie, and without the 
so-called filler; you cannot make a full pie and sell it at a 
profit. So many use corn starch to thicken; this has a corn 
taste and makes the filling of a tough nature, and the second 
day the pie looks flat and unsalable. Others use cake 
crumbs; this is really the worst, as old laid-over cakes are 
more or less rancid, the many materials the cake was for- 
merly compounded from does not flavor the good taste of a 
pie. My way of making filler is as follows: I take Pearl 
tapioca, have same ground to fine meal like corn meal. The 
cost of this is 41/2 cents per pound, and 54 of a cent per 
pound to grind it — for general use I take 12 qts. of water, 2 
lbs. of tapioca, 6 lbs. of sugar, put all in a kettle on the 
fire, and stir until the milky appearance disappears, when 
the mixture is done; this should never boil, only become of 
glassy appearance; this is absolutely tasteless, and really 
conducts the most delicate flavor of any fruit. This mixture 
costs a little more than 1 cent per pound. 

Next take a reasonable amount of this so-called filler 
and mix it with any canned fruit, thereby holding the filler 



140 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

together, and cheaper at the same time. I use 8 lbs. of 
large seeded raisins, 6 qts. water, io oz. tapioca and 4 lbs. 
sugar. Put the water, tapioca and sugar on the fire and 
treat as before said, until it becomes clear. Next add your 
raisins, and if you want to make it real good, squeeze to it 
a couple of lemons, let all of it cool and you will have a 
rilling at the cost of 3 cents per pound. 

Raspberries make the best berry pies, made of dry ber- 
ries, and is made such: Take 14 qts. water, 5 lbs. evaporated 
raspberries, boil them a few minutes, then add 6 lbs. sugar 
and 2 lbs. tapioca and finish on the fire; this filling costs 4 
cents per pound. 

So many others can easily be made by applying my 
method. There is only one thing to be observed; this is a 
little accurate labor. Weigh everything and have your ket- 
tles clean; copper kettles are best. 

Further, you must try out such suggestions to find out 
whether or not they are what you want. 



Pie Crust and Paste. 

I will say a few words about making pie crust or pie 
paste. To make an ordinary cheap, good crust, you must 
weigh your flour and lard, and dissolve the salt in the water, 
and be sure to know how much water it takes to mix the 
dough so you may pour in the full amount at once, thereby 
saving the over-working of the dough. Ordinary winter 
flour takes 1 qt. water, 4 lbs. flour, 2 lbs. lard, 1 oz. salt. 
Many bakers have trouble with watery custard pie. This 
is caused from baking too long. A custard pie is baked as 
soon as it is firm, no matter what color it may be, and must 
be taken from the oven. Often times it is the fault of the 
milk (fresh cow milk, I mean); therefore, I made good use 
of the dry milk. This dry milk helps to thicken the custard, 
makes the pie sweeter and firmer. If you mix 4 lbs. sugar, 

1 lb. lard, or butter, in a bowl, add 2 qts. of egg yolks, then 

2 lbs. spring flour, 1 lb. dry milk, you will have a regular 
dough. Now, gradually add 10 qts. of water, and next fill 
your pie bottom in the oven with a dipper; this will make a 
firm and sweet custard and bakes much faster than the corn 
starch custard. I don't like corn- starch for pie work. My 
experience is that starch settles oftentimes and is too heavy. 
Flour dissolves in the liquid moisture. This, however, is a 
fancy or experiment and not a real fact in every case. 



& 



Part IV 



Miscellaneous 






.1 



MISCELLANEOUS 



HEATING OVENS 



BY PROF. E. W. HABERMAAS 

Proceed to heat the oven as follows: Free the grate of 
ashes and clinkers, then put the wood (which should be thor- 
oughly dry) in the furnace; then put some paper in the fur- 
nace and light it; then open the damper and the draft door. 
When using coal for fuel, put some dry wood in the furnace, 
then put coal on it and light it, then draw the damper and open 
the bottom draft door. Now watch your fire, adding fresh fuel. 
When about one-third of the fuel is burned, fill the furnace with 
as much fuel as it will hold, then close the door; continue this 
process about three times. When the last furnace of fuel has 
burned down about one-half, close the damper partly (to prevent 
the heat from escaping through the open flue) and as the fire 
continues to burn down, continue closing the damper, and when 
the fire has burned down completely, close the damper entirely 
and shut the bottom draft door. The oven should be fired 
at least one hour before you begin baking in it, to allow the 
heat to moderate and to become evenly distributed through- 
out the oven, producing what is known to the trade as a ground 
heat. If you bake in a freshly heated oven your goods will 
scorch on the outside and remain doughy inside. Some goods re- 
quire a very quick oven, but the first heat in a fresh oven (pro- 



144 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

viding the oven has been properly heated) is almost too hot for 
any class of goods. If you are compelled to bake in a freshly 
heated oven, open the damper and allow the oven door to re- 
main open while baking, thus allowing a portion of the exces- 
sive heat to pass into the flue. This first heat is called flash 
heat, because it is not a lasting heat. An oven may be over- 
heated or underheated to a degree as to render it unfit for ser- 
vice. Bakers should be very careful about heating their ovens. 
Little fuel can be used and excellent results obtained, providing 
the one who does the firing knows how to fire an oven. Follow 
our directions very carefully when firing ovens. If you have 
too much heat in your oven you can remedy that by drawing 
the dampers and leaving the oven door open. But if you have 
an underheated oven you will find that the only remedy is to 
build more fire. This is wasteful extravagance, though some- 
times it is difficult to avoid, especially when you have damp or 
green wood. There is also a flash heat in an underheated oven, 
but it is not intense, nor does it last very long. 

On the other hand, if the bottom draft and furnace doors 
are not air tight, though you have them closed and have the 
dampers open, and only a moderate breeze is blowing, the fire 
will burn briskly. If you want the fire to die, close the damper 
and the bottom draft door. When you close the damper and 
the bottom draft door you shut off the supply completely, or 
the life of fire, then it dies. Chimneys should be built to tower 
above the roofs of adjoining buildings, so that the air currents 
can pass over them unobstructed. 

We have shown above that it is necessary to supply fire 
with air to create combustion, so we will now show what is 
understood by combustion. 

Combustion is defined : "To burn, or burning. The process 
by which bodies combine with oxygen and are thus seemingly 
destroyed. Oxygen exists uncombined in the atmosphere to the 
extent of 22 per cent, by volume and more than 23 per cent, by 
weight." The fact that air (and plenty of it) is absolutely 
necessary to produce combustion, seems foreign to most people 
who fire ovens, etc. These people poke a fire and give it draft as 
a matter of fact, but do not know why. AH highly flammable 
material, such as pitch tar, resin, pine wood, paper^ coal oil, 
gasolene, etc., and even gas will not burn unless mixed with 
a certain per cent, of air or oxygen, and all so-called inflam- 
mable (fire proof) material, such as mineral wood, prepared felt, 
asbestos, iron, steel, etc., can be entirely consumed by fire if sub- 
ject to sufficient blast. Under ordinary conditions, so-called 
fire-proof material will not burn, but throw them into a blast 



HEATING OVENS 145 

furnace — one equipped with a powerful blower — and watch the 
results. In a short space of time you will find nothing left 
to indicate that such material had been thrown into the furnace. 



The above illustration is given simply to show what a 
necessary factor air is to produce combustion even in a limited 
degree. Not only is air necessary to produce combustion, but the 
more air or draft you give a fire the more perfect the combus- 
tion, and the more perfect the combustion, the greater the heat 
it produces, and the greater the heat produced, the less fuel is 
required. Air is less expensive than either wood or coal; bear 
this in mind and profit by it. You have learned the necessity 
of using the poker frequently, and you have learned what is 
meant by draft and' combustion. Now be guided by what you 
have learned. 



It is not necessary to go into detail about the construction of 
continuous baking ovens, nor of the firing of these ovens. The 
builders of such ovens will furnish you the necessary informa- 
tion when you get ready to purchase such an oven. Enough is 
said when we say that more fuel is required to heat a continu- 
ous baking oven than furnace ovens, because the fire does not 
get inside of the oven proper (the baking chamber), but en- 
circles it. The heat must pass through the brick before it enters 
the baking chamber. For this reason more fuel is required to 
heat the oven. But after you have the required temperature in 
your oven, and begin to bake in it, but little fuel is required to 
keep it at the regular temperature during the baking period. 



Proceed to fire continuous baking ovens same as you would 
furnace ovens, and when you have the temperature in the oven 
as required, close the damper partly and the bottom draft en- 
tirely, and put on fuel only when necessary, that is when the 
temperature begins to fall during the baking period. When the 
temperature begins to fall, open the bottom draft and also the 
damper and poke the fire frequently. It is not absolutely neces- 
sary to keep up the fire after your oven has the required tempera- 
ture, unless your work requires it. In large bake shops where 
large batches of bread are baked continuously, it is absolutely 
necessary to keep up the fire, but in small shops this is not neces- 
sary unless a larger variety of goods are made; in that case it 
would be best to keep up a low fire. 



146 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Preparing Ovens for the Baking Process. 

This applies to furnace ovens only, because the fire enters the 
baking chamber. The flames as they circulate around the oven 
carry with them more or less ashes, and scatter them over the 
hearth. This necessitates cleaning the oven before it can be 
used, especially when baking bread on the hearth. A mop or 
"swab" is used for this purpose. This mop or "swab" consists 
of a long pole, on the end of which a cloth or gunny sack is 
fastened. An old peel handle may be used for this purpose or 
you can purchase a swab pole from any supply house. Proceed 
to swab the oven as follows : Dip the cloth into a vessel of 
clean water and get it thoroughly wet, then put it into the oven 
and push it back as far as possible and let the pole rest on the 
hearth, then take hold of the pole with both hands and bear 
down on it so as to raise the cloth slightly to allow it to whirl 
around freely, then draw it out about I J4 feet with a rotary mo- 
tion; then push it back again; do this quickly. By pushing the 
pole forward and drawing it back with the rotary motion, you 
cause the cloth to whirl around and throw the ashes or dust 
forward towards the oven door. Continue this process, begin- 
ning at the back of the oven and working forward to the oven 
door, then take out the swab and put it on the rack; then take 
a broom and sweep out the dust or ashes. 

While swabbing the oven you raise considerable dust, there- 
fore it is necessary that the damper should be open to allow 
the dust to pass into the flue. Usually while swabbing the oven 
the atmosphere in the oven is thick with dust and if the damper 
were closed this dust would settle on the hearth; but by keeping 
the damper open during this period most of the dust is drawn 
into the flue. When the atmosphere in the oven is clear (free 
from dust), close the damper and the oven door. Your oven 
is now ready for the baking process, but I would advise you not 
to bake in the oven immediately after it has been heated, unless 
it is absolutely necessary, because the first heat in an oven is 
usually intense. 









* 



FLOUR AND WHAT FLOUR 
WILL PRODUCE 



BY F. D. EMMONS, MINNEAPOLIS 

Bread-baking is becoming more and more each year a 
manufacturing process. Gradually the baker is introducing 
improved machines and improving his process of making 
bread by the introduction of new methods. Bread-baking 
has reached the stage where the process can be operated 
throughout practically by machinery. 

The bakers operating the smaller bakeries usually have 
a mixer and molding machine. A few years ago even bak- 
eries of large capacity did not have even these machines. The 
baker has come to see that a larger knowledge of the proper 
conditions of baking and what takes place during the process 
of bread-baking gives him better bread. 

In going through the bakeries of the United States, we 
find the uppermost question in mind of the master baker is 
"QUALITY." His constant endeavor is to make a better lot 
of bread. The people of the United States are receiving a 
better loaf of bread each year, as the increase in the sale 
of baker's bread testifies. 

There is still room for improvement, however. The 
baker's difficulties are not only encountered through the 
ingredients used in bread-making. In fact, these cause only 
a small part of his troubles. The baker not only has to be 
a baker and understand baking thoroughly, but he must also 
be a weather prophet. Weather conditions affect bread- 
making more than any other conditions which arise. There 
are very few bakeries having absolute control of their dough 
room. To have uniform bread each day it is necessary to 
have control of the dough room. There are very few who 
realize the importance of controlling these factors. I would 
like to leave this one message — "Watch Your Dough Room." 



148 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



Flour Storage. 



To have flour in the best condition for the baker's use 
is a problem which most of us do not give enough atten- 
tion. Flour should be kept in a dry, light and well ven- 
tilated room. The temperature should be from 70 to 75 
degrees F. and the flour should be so piled as to allow a free 
circulation of pure air to every sack. 

Light is a strong factor on the proper aging of flour for 
baking purposes. Give the flour all the light you can. There 
are a great many bakers who store their flour in a dark 
basement. Some of these may be fairly well ventilated and 
dry, but the flour receives no light. Darkness and damp- 
ness go hand in hand. Flour requires light to give it the 
best conditions for it to age. 

Putting flour in a cold, damp cellar is like putting meat 
in cold storage. The aging process is checked by the cold 
and the flour remains as it was when first put in storage. 
No aging process takes place. The flour has simply been 
preserved in the same state as when placed in the cellar. 

Possibly you have placed a handful of flour in a thin 
layer in the bright sunlight for two or three hours, and then 
compared it with the original flour. It has been bleached by 
the sunlight, and if it were baked beside the same flour which 
was not placed in the sunlight, you could hardly believe they 
were the same flour. 

Occasionally moving flour helps to age it; if it is turned 
over once a week, or preferably more often, the aging proc- 
ess is hastened. 

Flour should always be sifted before using. In packing 
in packages, flour is compressed and sifting loosens the small 
particles and mixes air in the flour. There are machines on 
the market specially adapted for this work. Besides being 
sifters these machines have beaters, which throw the flour 
and drive air into it. This aerating not only assists in aging 
but has added value of giving it greater water absorbing 
power, thus having the flour in much better condition for bread- 
making process.^ 

Under conditions of a well ventilated room, pure, dry air, 
well lighted, and at temperature of 70-75 degrees F., flour 
will probably be in the best condition to use in about ninety 
days. 

Many bakers do not have storage facilities for carrying 
their flour ninety days. With this in mind, we stored flour at 
a temperature of 84-86 degrees F. for thirty days. The results 
received were very satisfactory. This manner of storing for 



FLOUR 149 

thirty days could be readily carried out by many bakers who 
have not facilities for storing their flour for a longer time. 
This would give much better results than the general storage 
conditions which many bakers have now. 

Where the flour storage is limited and no heated ware- 
house, the space on the floor above the ovens can be used for 
flour storage. The heat from the ovens keeps the flour 
warm and insures a warm place to store floun It is also 
warmed quickly if it is necessary to use the flour immediately. 
If the flour can be held for some time stored in such a man- 
ner it ages quickly. It is necessary, however, to be sure no 
flue gases come in contact with the flour, as these gases 
quickly destroy the gluten. The above method has been 
very successfully used in places where flour storage was 
limited and no means of heating the flour was available. 

During the aging of flour there is a slight loss of moist- 
ure, which is utilized in two ways: 

1. Part is absorbed by the air. 

2. Part is used by the gluten in the aging process. 

When water is added to aged flour in mixing dough, the 
loss in moisture is more than made up by the larger per- 
centage of water it will absorb. Flour which is aged will on 
the average absorb 5 per cent, more water than flour which 
is freshly milled. The baking value of the flour is greatly 
increased by proper aging. The gluten is much more elastic 
and tough and makes a much better handling dough. The 
flour is whiter in color, the fermentation period is more 
easily handled, and it makes a much better loaf of bread in 
general. 



Flour Mixing. 

Many bakers mix flour from different mills, thinking they 
receive a more uniform and better blend of flour, that when 
one flour is poor the other usually is good and helps it along. 
In reality the opposite is the case. 

Every mill has its own separate system of bolting flour, 
so that they have the small particles of flour of the same 
uniform size. The sizes of flour particles from different 
mills will differ, consequently if these flours are blended, there 
will be flour particles of varying sizes. When mixed into 
dough, the smaller particles take up the water first and much 
faster than the larger particles, and fermentation begins im- 
mediately on the smaller particles. The larger particles re- 



150 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

quire a longer time to take up the water, therefore the fer- 
menting dough is not uniform — the dough from the larger 
particles being slower than that from the smaller particles. 
Thus, part of the dough will be "too old" and the remainder 
"too young." 

Some mills select their wheat and mill the flour by sys- 
tematic chemical and baking analyses, so that the gluten is 
of uniform quality and gives the best results when it is han- 
dled alone. If another flour is mixed with it, the gluten being 
of a different character will make an inferior gluten of the 
first flour and it will not give as good results as when han- 
dled alone. 



Color of Flour. 

The progressive miller is a close student of the wheat 
berry. It is necessary that he understand thoroughly the con- 
stitution of wheat to obtain the best results in the flour he 
grinds. 

Milling in its simple form is merely the separation of the 
bran coats and germ from the floury part of the kernel. To 
make these separations as thorough as possible requires a 
vast amount of machinery and a large number of operations. 

The gluten of the wheat is not evenly distributed 
throughout the berry. The central portion contains the least, 
and it increases toward the outside. Starch, on the other 
hand, is found to be just the reverse — the largest percent- 
age being found in the center and the percentage decreases 
toward the outside. Some flours are made from the very 
central portions. This gives a flour deficient in gluten and 
excessive in starch, and will not stand the treatment given 
it by the baker. It is starchy in color on account of the 
excessive amount of starch and the small quantity of gluten. 

An excessively white color and strong gluten are never 
found together in the same flour. In studying the needs of 
the baker in flour, we find he does not want an intensely 
starchy, white color, as this flour will not give a correspond- 
ing white color in the bread. 

What the baker does want is a flour containing the 
greatest strength and best color combined. It will be slightly 
creamy in color, but when baked will make as white a loaf 
as intensely white flour, and has the added advantage of hav- 
ing larger water absorbing powers, and the power to with- 
stand the harsh treatment given it by the baker. The baker 
in his mixing and fermentation develops the color in a loaf 



FLOUR. 151 

of bread. An intensely white flour will give a very dark loaf 
of bread if not fermented properly. On the other hand, a 
flour with good strength and creamy in color will, when 
candied under proper conditions of fermentation, give as 
white, if not whiter bread than the whiter flour. It also has 
the added advantage of withstanding the vigorous treatment 
of the machines. It gives a better volume, texture and pile 
in the loaf, and if through accident there is any delay in 
taking the dough when it is ready, the strong flour will stand 
it, while the white flour will have to be taken at just the 
right time to give good bread. 

Color in bread is not necessarily obtained by using a 
white flour. A better color can be obtained by using a strong 
and slightly creamy flour handled properly in the fermen- 
tation. The mixing of the dough at a high speed, and proper 
fermentation at the correct temperature, are the factors which 
make white bread. 



Mixing the Dough. 

To start a dough right is to mix it right. A properly 
mixed dough should be mixed twenty minutes, in a single 
arm machine, mixed with a speed of at least 36 revolutions 
per minute. Some mix their doughs the same length of time 
in mixers at a speed of 60 revolutions per minute. This gives 
toughness to the dough and makes it take up more water. 
There is one danger, and this is allowing the dough to warm 
up too much. The mixed dough should be 80 degrees Fahr. 
It is necessary to find the amount the mixer warms up the 
dough in twenty minues' mixing, and allow for this in the 
temperature of the water added. A dough properly mixed 
should be tough enough to be pulled out like a rope without 
breaking. 

Too many bakers are running their doughs too hot. We 
have had an exceptionally early spring — the change from 
cold to warm weather was very sudden. The bakers have 
not considered this and made the necessary changes, and 
consequently the dough is mixed too warm. 

Humidity plays a very strong part in the fermentation. 
With a high humidity the dough works much faster than 
with a low humidity. It is necessary to take this into con- 
sideration in preparing the dough. 



152 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Fermentation. 

Probably the most important step in bread-making is 
the fermentation period. To start the fermentation cor- 
rectly means to have the dough mixed correctly as to tem- 
perature and ingredients added, to obtain the best results in 
fermentation. 

Yeast ferments best at a temperature of 86 degrees. 
But, if a dough is set at this temperature, and has a tendency 
to warm up during fermentation, it gives even a higher tem- 
perature when the dough is ready for the pans. Other fer- 
ments also start to develop at this temperature which cause 
the dough to become sour, to a more or less degree, and in 
this way either cause sour bread or at least a loss of the rich 
wheat flavor. 

A dough works best at a temperature of 80 degrees Fahr., 
having the room at 76 degrees Fahr. The danger points in 
the temperature of a dough under these conditions are 76 
degrees and 86 degrees Fahr. If a dough is mixed at 80 de- 
grees Fahr. and put into a dough room having a temperature 
of 76 degrees Fahr., it will probably go onto the bench at 
82 degrees Fahr., which gives the best results in the bread. If 
a dough is mixed warmer than 80 degrees Fahr. it is neces- 
sary to watch it much closer and take it at exactly the right 
time. Even with the most careful observation of a dough 
at a warm temperature, a loss of flavor or a tinge of sour- 
ness develops. Our advice is to be wary of a warm dough. 

The age of dough is the critical point in bread-making. 
How to tell the age of a dough is a question we have never 
seen satisfactorily answered. Most bakers tell intuitively, 
and this has required long experience. The color, texture, 
volume and flavor of the resulting bread are dependent al- 
most entirely on the age of the dough. 

The length of time of the first rising in a straight dough 
is a point many bakers do not consider. If the dough is too 
young, give more time on the first rising; if too old, shorten 
the time of the first rising. The age of a dough is gov- 
erned to a considerable degree by the first rising. 

A strong flour requires three risings by the ordinary 
methods of bread-making. There are processes used where 
the dough is punched at stated intervals. This, however, is 
used more successfully where very good control is had over 
the temperature and humidity. 

Technically, a dough is ready when the yeast has reached 
the maximum of its energy. If the proper development of 
gluten and the maximum of energy of the yeast is not 



FLOUR 153 

reached, a young dough is the result. A young dough will 
not spring in the oven, the texture will be coarse, the color 
will be yellow in varying degrees, and a generally poor loaf 
is received. 

If the fermentation is carried too far, the yeast will have 
lost its vitality, other ferments will have started to develop. 
The loaf will have a tendency to fall in the oven. It will 
not spring in the oven, the texture will be coarse, the 
color dark and the wheat flavor lost, a sour odor will also be 
noticeable. 

If the dough is fermented at too high a temperature, 
both young and old characteristics will be noticeable in the 
loaf. 

Any improper handling of a dough, either by ingredients 
added, length of .the period of fermentation, or wrong tem- 
perature, will give a dark, coarse and small loaf. The miller 
is usually blamed for these results, which in reality are not 
caused by the flour, but by the improper use of the ingredients 
and methods of handling. 



Ingredients. 

The ingredients in bread-making that have a vital in- 
fluence upon the finished bread, are: Flour, water, yeast, 
salt. It is always necessary to have these. Other ingredients 
act in the capacity of hastening fermentation, yeast foods, 
flavor, etc., to give a character or special flavor to bread. 

We contend there is no bread recipe. What we call a 
bread recipe is merely a combination of ingredients in pro- 
portions to suit the conditions under which the baker is 
working. We all havve books full of bread recipes, each a 
little different from the other, and all striving to obtain the 
same bread, or give their bread a slightly different character. 

One baker finds his conditions are suitable for one com- 
bination of ingredients; another finds he cannot use this 
recipe at all. He finds another combination which suits his 
conditions. All are working under different conditions of 
climate, temperature and manner of handling. Consequently, 
it is necessary to find the proportion of ingredients which 
best adapt themselves to the present conditions. The char- 
acter of bread desired naturally influences the ingredients used, 
and as conditions change the ingredients must change to meet 
these conditions, if a special character and individuality in 
bread is desired. 



154 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



Water. 



Most bakers do not use as much water as is possible in 
bread-making. A hard, northwestern flour requires a slack 
dough if the flour has been made from wheats having the 
right characters and properly milled. The best results are ob- 
tained by setting the dough as soft as can be handled. When 
mixing the dough the water at first is not thoroughly ab- 
sorbed by the flour particles, as the gluten is so hard it takes 
some time for these particles to thoroughly absorb all the 
water they will hold. This continuing to absorb is known 
to the baker as "tightening up." This featuie is characteristic 
of Northwestern flours, and is lacking in other flours. When 
mixing a dough from Northwestern flours always allow for 
"tightening up," and mix the dough softer than it is intended 
to be when you "take the dough." The opposite is the case 
in softer flours as they "slack off." 

Any flour will lose this characteristic of "tightening up" 
if a dough when mixed is too hot. Gluten is in reality a vege- 
table glue and softens when the dough is mixed warm, and 
consequently will not absorb the amount of water it should, 
and it will have a tendency to "slack off" instead of "tighten- 
ing up." 



MILK VALUE IN BREAD 



BY W. E. BREEZE, OF LONDON 

Of course, we all know that wheat grown under certain 
conditions varies, and, as the climate and soil differ, so does 
the gluten, as is exampled between comparison with a soft 
and a strong flour. In the same way it applies to milk. The 
composition of fat in new milk is determined by the breed, 
climate, food and health of the cow. A really rich milk 
would produce as much as % oounce to i ounce of fat to 
the pint, especially just now, when the animals are kept up 
and fed pretty well. They give less milk, but it is much 
higher in quality. In summer, when there is plenty of grass, 
the cows give more milk, and, on the whole, more fat, but the 
percentage is not so high as it is just now. In Holland, for 
instance, milk is poor, and more deficient in fat, because the 
pastures are more moist and watery. Whether the various fancy 
brown breads do or do not carry out, as they are reputed to 
do, all the properties accorded to them I am not prepared to 
say. Time must be given for a suitable trial, and if they are 
are not found suitable we must turn our attention to some- 
thing else. A milk loaf of a favorable quality is generally 
being inquired for, but I am sorry to have to record that the 
majority of bakers do not treat it with the same respect that 
they accord to its rivals. Its rivals are sold under certain 
conditions. You must not adulterate it in any sense, for if 
you do you are liable to prosecution. But the old milk bread 
is not standardized as to its composition, and there is hardly 
a bread-maker who does not sell "milk bread." I may also 
safely venture to say that the milk added to the bread is as 
varied in quantity as there are purveyors of the commodity. 
There is no stipulated or understood quantity, and in conse- 
quence the quality of the loaf suffers. 



156 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

During my experience I have known and seen bread sold 
as "milk bread" which had never seen the sight of milk, but, 
on the other hand, there are other bakers who are most par- 
ticular and have the most liberal quantity of milk, the result 
being they produce a beautiful and most honest loaf. I have 
seen other bakers who put in about six quarts of milk, and 
the bread is made up in fancy shapes and weights, and styled 
fancy bread. There is no recognized standard for the quan- 
tity of milk used per sack. Whether it is of sufficient impor- 
tance to the trade that such a loaf should be made and sold 
is another matter. But I wish to put before you the value 
of milk in bread-making, and also to emphasize the benefits 
which, in my opinion, are derived from bread made with the 
addition of milk. I have eaten brown bread which has set 
up irritation in the stomach, but this has never happened to 
my knowledge when the bread has been made with good 
sweet full cream milk. I am convinced if this milk bread 
were kept before the public, made, of course, from the proper 
ingredients and in proper proportion, there would be no 
doubt as to the best loaf to be obtained at fancy prices, a 
loaf which would leave the baker an equal, if not better, 
profit than we obtain to-day for our fancy browns. In 1908, 
at the London Exhibition, for the first time, a milk powdered 
loaf won the first prize in the milk bread competition, and 
thus beat the new milk itself. That bread looked very nice, 
and its color was excellent, the weight sent in being about 2 
pounds. It is true there is no recognized standard shape for 
milk bread, so several shapes were sent in, the competitors 
seeming to satisfy themselves to produce an ordinary loaf 
with milk in it. I do not know whether it would be possible 
for the manufacturers to suggest lines upon which shape and 
quality could be combined to produce a standard milk loaf. I 
do not know whether I am asking too much, but in time it 
would not amount to anything more than asking for a cot- 
tage loaf, a crumby or tin loaf. If manipulated and produced 
properly, it would increase it dietetic value, and be a different 
commodity, with changed properties, and yielding nourish- 
ment in a new and concentrated form. 



Dry Milk. 

I do not say that the combination I have spoken of is a 
correct one or not, but I do not think it should beat the use 
of full cream milk, for I have always noticed a distinctive 
delicate flavor with the new milk in comparison with the 



MILK VALUE IN BREAD 157 

dried article, and I did not intend to treat of dried or con- 
densed milk, but only of new milk, skimmed milk and sepa- 
rated milk. To make my subject more complete, I will, after 
all, first touch upon dried milk. This is a very useful and 
unvarying commodity. It is fairly quick in solution in warm 
water, and is convenient, especially in cases where really good 
dairy milk is scarce or unobtainable. Its fat and sugar are 
more or less varied, or practically nil, and as dried milk is 
minus lactic acid, the flavor being sometimes interfered with 
by evaporation, I cannot recommend it in preference to good 
new milk. Of course, with a little doctoring, you may im- 
prove some faults, but the delicate flavor of new milk is not 
so pronounced. 



Condensed Milk. 

I will now pass on to condensed milk. Sweetened con- 
densed milk is a most desirable substance from an economic 
and handy point of view. It may be used in water alone or 
in conjunction with separated milk. Of course, you use it 
for what it is worth. If used separately, milk fat, or some 
other fat, such as good sweet lard or neutral fat, will have to 
be used to make up the deficiency, the usual quantity being 
about one small tin and 3 ounces of fat per gallon of water. 



Buttermilk 

We will now pass on to buttermilk, which you all know 
is very useful in the manufacture of soda and powdered 
goods, as the lactic acid already formed has the property of 
softening the gluten in the flour, thereby rendering the goods 
soft and mellow. As, however, I am concerned with bread- 
making, we will leave the powdered goods alone. I have 
had some very good results from condensed milk by keeping 
it active, and not allowing it to lag. It seems to have a 
bleaching effect, and from a nutritive point of view comes 
very near to new milk. Again, the proteids of the milk and 
mineral matter are practically digested by the action of the 
lactic organisms, and new milk undergoes no change during 
fermentation in the dough. The changed condition in the 
buttermilk is of great advantage, and lactic acid adds flavor 
to bread made with compressed yeast. There is no reason 
to suppose that bread made with buttermilk will go sour 
sooner than that made with fresh milk if the fermentation is 



158 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

managed properly. To use buttermilk in bread-making the 
milk must be fresh — not more than twenty-four hours old. 
Old milk will not do, and when fermentation is started the 
dough must be attended to and baked in a good oven. Of 
course, I am not going to advise a novice to use buttermilk, 
or he would most probably be doomed to failure, but I have 
indicated the possibilities of the use of buttermilk. I will 
give you an analysis of buttermilk and also of new milk. 
New milk contains 4.0 per cent of fat, 3.6 of proteids, 4.5 milk 
sugar, 9.7 of ash or mineral matter, 87.2 per cent, of lactic 
acid. Buttermilk has the following proportions : Fat 0.8 
proteids 3.7, milk sugar, 3.8, ash or mineral matter 0.7, H 2 
90.85, lactic acid 0.85. The production of lactic acid is lim- 
ited to the proportion of milk sugar present. I have not 
made large quantities of bread with buttermilk, but have 
treated certain quantities as a hobby to try what I could 
really do with it, and the results were quite satisfactory. 



Skimmed Milk. 

Now we will consider skimmed milk, or separated milk. 
We must bear in mind they have very little fat, though the 
milk sugar is retained; it is simply fresh milk minus the 
cream. As butter-fat is about 4 per cent, of the total milk, 
often less, the fat can be replaced by lard or any neutral fat. 
They are really as good, and the public in any case will 
hardly give you credit for having used butter. A quart of 
separated milk, containing 2 ounces of sweet lard or neutral 
fat, will make nearly as good bread as fresh milk. Do not 
get the idea that it will be thinner, and therefore use more 
fat than is necessary. One gallon of separated milk and 7 
ounces of fat equals one gallon of fresh milk. Lard and neu- 
tral fats only affect the texture and shortness, and even but- 
ter added as a fat does not give that mild flavor imparted 
when the full cream is used. 



New Milk. 

I will deal lastly with new milk, and its advantages in 
comparison with the last named. The composition of new 
milk consists of 87 per cent, of water, 5 of milk sugar, 4 of 
fat, and about 3^ of albuminoids, the rest being mineral 
matter. The effect of added milk to bread in place of water 
is, other things being equal, to increase its nutriment- Pro- 






MISCELLANEOUS. 159 

viding the bread is worked on a short and quick system, as 
it should be, it will get a bloom, with a rich crumb, color and 
even texture. The crust will be thin and fine, and the flavor 
will be most appetizing. Although the table just given is 
the average composition of milk, there are variations. The 
casein and albumin are the nitrogenous constituents of the 
milk, and may be regarded as flesh-formers. The fat con- 
sists of stearine, and other constituents which give to butter 
its characteristic flavor. Milk sugar or lactrose is the only 
carbohydrate present in starch. The ash consists chiefly of 
phosphates of lime and potash. Taking the figures given, it 
can be said that new milk has from three to four times the 
value of separated milk, and, taking a careful valuation, we 
get, say, is. per gallon of new milk and 3d. for separated. 
Of course, where large quantities of new milk are bought 
there would be a corresponding reduction in the price. I 
get it by the ten gallons; there is no transit to pay, and no 
second handling is required, the milk coming direct from the 
farm to the bake-house. The excessive fat per gallon in new 
milk is worth 9d. per gallon above separated milk, which 
would cost 3d. The value of a standard sample would be as 
follows: New milk — Fat 3.5, non-fat 9.0, total solids 2.5. Sep- 
arated milk — Fat 0.3, non-fats 9.0, total 9.3, value 3d. Taking 
as a maximum quantity eight gallons of new milk per sack, 
and as a minimum quantity six gallons, the price of the loaf 
would be higher. To assist in cases where a large quantity 
of milk is used the dough must be softer because of the bind- 
ing effect of the milk. Taking into account the added solids, 
we should have a larger output per sack, together with a bet- 
ter loaf, one of high dietetic value, while the milk and butter 
contained in it would improve the flavor, texture, color and 
physical properties of the crumb. Evenness of texture and 
cleverness of loaf make a better crumb color, the effect most 
noticeable with added milk, being due to the percentage of 
fat present. As a comparison, take 1 ounce of butter with 10 
pounds of flour, as against 1 quart of milk. The butter or 
fat gives a very fine texture and thin crust, whilst the milk 
results in a better bloom, owing to the unfermentable sugar 
of milk. Of all milks, fresh full cream is best, and ought to 
be used with water in equal proportions, as half milk and half 
water give excellent results. • 

Miscellaneous. 

A good idea followed by many is weighing the ingre- 
dients required for as many custard pies used in a week or 



160 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

two. For instance, if you make 4 pies a day, or 24 a week, 
weigh the required amount of sugar, starch, salt and mace, 
mix and sift together and put away in a can or box, and 
every time you make 4 pies weigh off one pound, or four 
ounces to each pie. This saves time in weighing, and does 
away with the guessing of the salt and flavor, which is hard 
in small mixes. The same is done with pumpkin pies, adding 
to the whole amount the required spices. This enables you 
to make a uniformly spiced and tasting pumpkin pie, which 
is the most important feature of it. 



Recipe for Preserving Rhubarb for Pie. 

The following is a recipe for preserving rhubarb for 
pie purposes, and it is simple and cheap. Take the rhubarb 
and cut it in pieces, and put it in fruit jars, filling them with 
water, and thereby keeping it all winter, or as long as you 
want it, and when you get ready to use it, it is all ready 
for use, after sugar, etc., is added. 






Bacterial Contamination in 
Bread 



James Grant, an English chemist and teacher of the bak- 
ery classes in the Manchester Bakery School, in England, 
gave the following illustrated lecture before the Bakery 
Students' Society, on the Baterial Contamination of Bread, 
which is of considerable interest to American bakers: 

It is well known that wheats and other cereals, owing 
to the deep crease or furrow down the center of the ventral 
side, and to the hairs (especially in the case of wheat), known 
as the beard, at the top of the berry, are liable to cause bac- 
terial diseases in our food supplies. It may be objected that 
washing during the preparation for milling will get rid of 
dust and its accompanying bacteria. Unfortunately, this is 
not the case, as may readily be shown by washing wheats 
that are ready for milling and incubating the washing water. 
Fruits, equally with cereals, are liable to this contamination. 
Wines, for example, for hundreds of years have been fer- 
mented by the yeasts which adhere to the grape in the 
"bloom" on the outside of the fruit. Hansen, the great ex- 
pert on yeasts, has proved that during the period of the year 
when there are no grapes, the yeasts and other micro-or- 
ganisms that exist in the soil in the form of spores, which are 
able to endure periods of stress that kill the adult micro- 
organisms. Similarly in the case of barley. We have found 
in our work, time after time, that germs of all kinds exist 
on the wrinkled surface of the grain. Not many years ago 
we were able to isolate pure cultures of the bacillus which 
induces tetanus or lockjaw. During the milling process it 
can be seen that germs left on the surface of the berry must 
necessarily pass into the finished flour. Flour, then, is not 
germ free- 

It is claimed by certain millers, who bleach their flours, 
that one of the chief objects is to render it sterile or nearly 



162 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

so. Research has shown that this claim is justified only to a 
very limited extent. In the year 1904, Dr. F. M. Blumenthal 
studied the subject very thoroughly. Two of his results, as 
examples, will be quoted. In an unbleached rye meal there 
existed no less than 2,400 micro-organisms per gramme of the 
meal. After bleaching there still remained 1,600 micro-organ- 
isms per gramme. With flour unbleached he found 540 or- 
ganisms per grain, and with bleached flour 170. In both 
cases the best figures are only given. It is pretty evident, 
then, that milled products are not germ free; and further, 
those spoken of as meals, or in other words, those that con- 
tain the husk, are much more contaminated than those from 
which the husk has been separated, e. g., the ordinary flour. 
The chief object of this paper is to give students an idea 
as to the best methods of undertaking a research or investi- 
gation into the cause of contamination. Since taking up the 
study of bread-making, between five and six years ago, a num- 
ber of very interesting cases of bacterial diseases of bread 
have come under my observation, but the one that impressed 
me more deeply than others was that of a case of bread baked 
in special tins at a very low temperature, and known in the 
trade as sandwich bread. For this purpose the bread must 
be cooked at the lowest possible temperature, so as to form 
little or no crust. In this particular case of sandwich bread, 
after a few days keeping, a peculiar formation, resulting in 
a hole, was developed in the center of the loaf and running 
in the direction of the length. Accompanying this develop- 
ment was a very unpleasant odor. All around the low flat 
hole the crumb had a dull, sodden appearance. The question 
to be settled was: What was the cause of this unpleasant 
formation? To one acquainted with the life history of very 
many of the lower forms of life, especially of vegetable life, 
there was little difficulty in ascribing it to filth bacteria. 
From the general appearance of a section of a loaf the only 
conclusion that could be arrived at was^ that the trouble 
was due to bacterial action, together with the products 
formed- # Starting from these premises it became necessary 
to inquire into the sources of such contamination. These 
might be due to either (1) Dirty and unclean premises and 
plant, or (2) to the water used, or (3) to the yeast, or (4) 
to the flours, or (5) to bread improvers used (if any). It 
could not possibly be the salt, because salt is so strong an 
antiseptic that there could be no risk from this source. Num- 
bers (1), (2) and (5) were easily eliminated. This narrowed 
down the work to a study of the flours and yeast. The de- 
tails of the research will show the means taken to deter- 



BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION 163 

mine, if possible, the actual causes of the trouble. The work 
was still further narrowed down by the fact that if bacteria 
were at work it could only be a group capable of withstand- 
ing comparatively high temperatures. Again, a large number 
of expensive media were unnecessary, as bread was a suit- 
able food for our purpose. The requisite appliances were 
those of an ordinary well-filled bacteriological laboratory. 

Ordinary microscopic slides of the diseased bread were 
made with sterile water, and these examined by microscope. 
This revealed the presence of moulds and mucor spores, 
yeasts — both the ordinary cultivated and wild— and numer- 
ous bacteria. On further examination after incubation at 
suitable temperatures, most of the above-mentioned proved 
to be just the common micro-organisms existing in flours 
and bread. Some of the bread was then incubated at 80 
degrees Fahrenheit for four days. The piece of bread was 
then found to be covered with a whitish-colored growth, 
which later developed into a dark yeasty color nad possessed 
a very peculiar and strong odor. Samples of the flour and 
yeast used in the manufacture of the bread were treated in 
a similar manner. In four days the flour specimens showed 
the same peculiar growth which, in two days, changed to 
the dark fawn color possessing the same characteristic odor. 
The yeast, on the other hand, behaved quite normally and 
developed none of the strange symptoms. 

The next step was to try to infect some sterile bread 
with this peculiar disease, if possible. To this end sterile 
bread was introduced into Petri dishes, moistened with sterile 
water, and some of the dish contents sprinkled with flour, 
and others with crumbs of the diseased bread. The incuba- 
tion temperatures were 68 and 80 degrees Fahr., respectively. 
At the lower temperature, as well as at the higher, the cul- 
tures were all successful, but it took several days longer in the 
specimens — at the lower temperature. Various other cultures 
were now put on, with other media and different ap- 
paratus, with a view to isolating the special cause of the dis- 
ease. All specimens, and also micro-slides from these, had 
to be examined regularly at fixed periods, entailing, of 
course, an enormous amount of detail work which cannot 
here be set forth. Suffice it to say that ultimately by vary- 
ing the media and mode of cultivation swarms of very 
minute oval-shaped non-mobile bacteria, and also many rod- 
shaped mobile organisms, were isolated. By this time all 
yeasts, moulds, mucors, and other complex growing organ- 
isms had been eliminated. To ensure that all the apparatus 



164 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

and media were sterile, blank specimens were put on so as 
to be parallel with the special culture in each case. 

By means of the plate (Petri dish) cultures and Bottcher 
moist cells, a group of minute bacteria belonging to the 
Thermo or film species was obtained by which this particu- 
lar disease could be produced at will. Moreover, prepared in 
this way, the bacteria which cause the disease were, and still 
are, very virulent. It only remained now to identify the 
particular species of the Thermo-group, but this was not an 
easy matter, as the members of the Thermo group are ex- 
ceedingly minute. The plate cultures yielded colonies which 
rapidly increased in size, the disease spreading over the 
media in all directions. It was finally identified as belong- 
ing to the Proteus division of the Thermo or septic bacteria. 
These exist in most fertile soils, hence the research showed 
that the flour was produced from near the outer skin of the 
wheat berry, or, in other words, a low grade of flour. Fur- 
ther, it proves that the miller, with all his modern machin- 
ery, has not yet perfected that portion which does the cleans- 
ing or washing of the wheat. It should be remembered that 
the complete washing of the wheat, so as to free it from 
dust and micro-organisms, especially in the deep crease, and 
the fine hairs or beard at the top of the berry, is not at all 
a simple matter; but much more could be done, even if 
only a very dilute antiseptic was used in the final or next 
to the last washing water, instead of finishing with the 
muddy fluid as at present. 



^ 



BAKERY ACCOUNTING 



BY WM. W. ALLAN 

Next to the baking business itself, the most important 
item is that of an accounting system. 



Checking Drivers 

The first step in this direction is the making up of a list 
of the various kinds of bread wanted by each driver, show- 
ing in total the number of loaves of each brand ordered in 
the total column. In another column under heading "Total 
Made" have the foreman enter the number of loaves of each 
kind made. If a shipping business is conducted the amount 
of bread needed can also be shown on this sheet under head- 
ing "Shipping." If a retail store is conducted in connection 
with the bakery the amount needed for store may also be 
shown on this sheet under heading "Store." This completes 
the Bread Order. (See Fig. "A.") 

FIGURE "A." 

DAILY ORDER SHEET. 

Date 191.. 

Driver Driver Ship- Total Total 

No. 1 No. 2 Store ping Order Articles Made 

Buster Brown 

Home Made 

Large Vienna 

Small Vienna 

Large Cream 

Small Cream 

Large Rye 

Small Rye 

Graham 



166 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

Now prepare a loading sheet for each of the drivers 
which will show at the end of the day's business the total 
amount of each kind of bread taken out and charged to each 
driver. (See Fig. "B.") These sheets can be extended and 
used for checking in the drivers, as shown. 

FIGURE "B." 

DRIVER'S LOADING SHEET. 

Driver „ No. i Date 191.. 

1st 2nd 3rd Total Dr. Cr. 

Trip Trip Trip Out Articles Amount Amount 

Buster Brown $ $ 

Home Made $ . .$ 

.Large Vienna $ $ 

Small Vienna $ $ 

Large Cream $ $. 

Small Cream $ $ 

Large Rye $ $ 

Small Rye $ $ 

Graham $ $ 



Total Charges $ 

Cr. Expense $. 

Cr. Cash $. 



A form called "Driver's Returns" (See Fig. "C") should 
also be used, showing the number of loaves of each kind of 
bread returned by the drivers, and which should be kept, and 
all entries made thereon, by the bread counter. It is very 
essential to have some one person, other than the drivers 
themselves, to check out the drivers and keep the drivers' 
loading sheets. 

FIGURE "C." 

DRIVER'S RETURNS. 

Driver No. 1 Date 191. . 

Total 
Returns Articles Amount 






.Buster Brown $. 
.Home Made $. 
.Large Vienna $. 



ACCOUNTING 167 



.Small Vienna $. 

.Large Cream $. 

.Small Cream $. 

.Large Rye $. 

.Small Rye $. 

. Graham $ 



Total $. 

Signed 

Counter. 



Another form' called "Proving Sheet'' (See Fig. "D") 
should be kept in connection with the above forms, and upon 
which the daily driver's, store, and shipping sales may be en- 
tered and compared with the daily output or total made. 

FIGURE "D " 

PROVING SHEET. 

Date 191.. 

Charged Bu. Hm. Lg. Sm. Lg. Sm. Lg. Sm. Gra. 
To Br. Md. Va. Va. Cr. Cr. Ry. Ry. Gra. 

Driver No- 1. 
Driver No 2, 
Store Account. 
Shipping Account. 

Total Charged 

Total Made 



Bread Department. 



A Bread Department account should be kept in the 
ledger, and credit to this account should be made for drivers, 
shipping and store sales, and if bread is sold on the basis of 
four cents per loaf the total credit to this account divided 
by four will give the total number of loaves approximately 
sold for a month or any given period, ( which figures may 
be used in arriving at the cost of production per 1,000 loaves 
for any item of expense, such as bakers' salaries, fuel, mer- 
chandise, etc., etc. 



168 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

At the end of the month charge to the bread department 
all items of expense for that month, such as advertising, 
salaries, sundry expenses, light and fuel, merchandise, stable 
expense, and the monthly proportion of insurance and taxes 
— the balance will show the profit or loss in this department 
for such period. 



Shipping Department. 

If a shipping business is conducted, a shipping depart- 
ment account should also be kept, and to this account can 
be charged all bread shipped at the rate of, say three cents 
per loaf — crediting same to bread department. Charge should 
be made to this account for all express charges and for its 
proportion of salaries. The credit to this account will be 
the gross charges to the parties to whom bread is shipped- 
The difference will show the profit or loss. 

My experience has been that if the proper charges are 
made for all expenses in connection with shipping, including 
losses owing to bad account, the wear and tear and loss of 
baskets — the shipping department will invariably show an 
actual loss, even on the basis of charging only three cents 
per loaf for all bread used in shipping, unless bread returned 
by the drivers is used in shipping, and which is used for this 
purpose by some bakers, and which otherwise would have to 
be disposed of for considerably less. 



Cake Department. 

Where cakes, pies, cookies, etc., are made in connection 
with bread they should be separated from the bread depart- 
ment and all could be included in one department called 
Cake Department, or any other name suitable. The materials 
used for the making of these goods should be charged direct 
to this account when purchased, and all materials used from 
the bread department merchandise should be charged to 
Cake Department merchandise and credited to Bread De- 
partment merchandise. Also charge to Cake Department its 
proportion of bakers' salaries, light and fuel, and other ex- 
penses belonging to this account. The credit to this account 
will be the drivers' returns from the sale of pies, cakes, etc., 
and for those sold to the store or shipping customers. 






ACCOUNTING. 169 



Store Department. 



If a retail store in conducted in connection with a bakery, 
all goods taken from the shop should be charged to Store 
Account at the regular wholesale prices, and credited to the 
bread or cake department. Charge should also be made to 
Store Account for clerk salary attending store, and should 
also be charged for its proportion of light and fuel, office 
salary, and other expenses, and also for all merchandise pur- 
chased from the outside to be sold in the store. The credit 
to this account will be the daily sales as shown by the cash 
register. 



Stable Feed. 

A stable feed account should be kept to which is charged 
all items of hay, grain, etc., used for horse feed. At the end 
of the month the balance of this account can be charged into 
Stable Expense Account. The object in keeping this account 
separate is for the purpose of arriving at the cost for feeding 
a horse for a given period, which can be done by dividing the 
number of horses into the total charges to this account. 



Stable Expense. 

Charge to this account items of medicines, veterinary 
bills, shoeing bills and stable man's wages, and all other items 
of expense belonging to this account. At the end of the 
month charge the balance in Stable Feed Account to this 
account, which will then show the entire cost of operating 
the stable. 



General Accounts 

Ledger accounts should also be kept of Buildings, Har- 
ness, Horses, Machinery, Fixtures, Ovens and Wagons, and 
a certain amount should be credited at the end of each month 
to each of these accounts to cover shrinkage, the total 
amount of these shrinkages being charged to Expense Ac- 
count. Ledger accounts should also be kept of Insurance and 
Taxes, charging all bills for these items to these accounts, 



170 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

and crediting these accounts at the end of each month with 
their monthly pro ratio for these items, charging at the same 
time this pro ratio to Expense. 



Inventory. 

To install an accounting system as described above, which 
is on a monthly basis, it will, of course, be necessary to take 
monthly inventories of Fuel and Merchandise for each de- 
partment, Stable Feed and Store Stock. 

A system such as I have outlined is adequate for handling 
the accounting end of a baking business having an output up 
to eight or ten thousand loaves daily, but for a larger baking 
business a more intricate system would of necessity have to 
be installed and which would carry with it a great many more 
accounts than I have named. 

A great many minor record accounts could be kept in 
connection with the above system, but it would be quite diffi- 
cult to explain all these. 



Breaking an Egg with One Hand. 

The trick of breaking an egg with one hand is something 
that you should learn how to do. It not only gives you 
speed, but shows that you are a workman thoroughly familiar 
with your business. The trick can be acquired with a little 
practice. To do it nicely the hand should be a little moist. 
Hold the egg in the right hand between the forefinger and 
the second finger with the thumb on top. Strike the egg 
once sharply on the rim of the glass to crack the shell, then 
holding it over the glass press down slightly with the thumb 
and the egg drops out, leaving the shell in the hand. While 
learning to do this the glass should be allowed to stand on 
the counter, so that if you fail, the left hand can come to the 
assistance of the right; but just as soon as you know that 
you can break the egg with one hand, then you can hold the 
glass in the other. This saves time, especially when you have 
two or three to prepare at once. When you have become 
proficient with the right hand try the left until you can use 
either or both. 



PRACTICAL FLOUR TESTS 



Color and Texture. 

The color of bread made from wheat flour varies with 
the kind of wheat used in making the flour and also with the 
grade of flour used in making the bread. All wheats con- 
tain minute quantities of a yellow coloring matter, conse- 
quently a fresh, well-milled unbleached patent flour has a 
live, bright, yellow tint. This yellow tint disappears when a 
flour is aged or artificially bleached and the flour becomes 
almost snow white. The lower grades of flour have, in addi- 
tion to the yellow color, a dark color, due to foreign matter 
and bran particles. This color does not improve much with 
age, nor is it possible to improve it by bleaching. 

Bread usually appears whiter than the flour from which 
it is made. This is due to aeration, i. e., mixing air and gases 
thoroughly through the dough in kneading and fermentation. 
Very little bleaching really occurs during fermentation, in 
fact fermentation changes some of the starch which is snow 
white into dextrin, which is a yellow substance. The whiten- 
ing effect of aeration, however, overcomes the yellow color 
due to chemical change and causes the bread to appear 
whiter than the flour. 

In comparing colors of bread in comparative baking 
tests, there is no better method than allowing the loaves to 
cool, cutting a slice from each, placing side by side, and 
using your judgment as to the value of each color in com- 
parison to standard loaf. In comparing a number of loaves 
by this method the colors will range through tints of white, 
yellow, gray and blue. Taking pure white as ioo per cent, 
the other tints in order of their value, are yellow, blue and 



172 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



gray, but it sometimes becomes a question of judgment of 
the observer which of the colors is the brightest and most 
clean and of most value. 

The texture of bread is caused by the expansion of the 
dough by the carbon dioxide which tends to escape but is 
held in and gathers in small quantities through the dougi*. 
When bread is baked the dough retains a permanent shape 
and the cavities in which the gas gathered give the bread a 
porous appearance. These holes vary in size and shape. A 
flour with a good quality of gluten holds the gas in small 
globules and therefore the holes are small and usually elong- 
ated from bottom to top of the loaf. This is good texture 
and when touched gives a sensation of touching velvet. A 
poor gluten allows the gas to gather into large, round 
globules and produces a coarser texture and one which is 
harsh to the touch. Too long a period of fermentation or 
too much water in the dough will also produce poor texture. 
As in color, value of texture depends on the judgment of the 
observer. 



HR 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 173 

MEMORANDUM. 



For Notes and Recipes. 



174 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 
MEMORANDUM. 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 175 

MEMORANDUM. 



176 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

MEMORANDUM. 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 177 



We build th( 



Standard 
Oven 



For Bread and Gake 

With every modern improvement, 
strong and durable. 

Baking service is perfect and uni- 
form in every part of oven. 

CONSUMPTION OF FUEL 
SURPRISINGLY SMALL 



Standard Oven Co. 

Pittsburgh, Pa. 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



178 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



MAKES GOOD BREAD 

i 




Red Star Compressed Yeast Co. 

79-81 Buffalo St., Milwaukee 



«Bj 



Big Diamond 



» 



is the strongest flour 
known to the trade — 
always uniform — always 
highest in quality. 

Big Diamond Milling Co. 

Minneapolis, Minn. 



When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



179 



THERE IS MONEY IN THIS FOR YOU ! 



THE MIDDLEBY 

The up-to-date oven 
For the up-to-date baker ! 







When buying an oven, 
why not buy the best? 

Why not get an oven that will raise the quality of your 
goods? Why not get an oven that will save you fuel? 

Better quality of your goods means increase in business, 
and increase in business means money to you. 

A saving in fuel also means money to you. 

YOU GET ALL THIS IN A MIDDLEBY OVEN 

We want you to get the benefit of this saving, and we 
know you can get it by using a MIDDLEBY. Write to-day for 
our catalogue. 

Middleby Oven Manufacturing Co. 

769 West Adams Street, Chicago 
286 State St., Boston, Mass. 605 So. 6th St., St. Louis, Mo. 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



180 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



Thomson Loaf Moulders 

These machines are rightly recognized throughout 
the world as the STANDARD machines for moulding 
dough. Over 1,500 have been sold. 

Combination Loaf Moulders 

Regular Loaf Moulder with an Attachment for 
making Long or French Bread. 

Zerah Bailers 

Round up your doughs. It will give you a larger 
and better loaf. 

Combination Roll Moulders 

Either straight finger rolls or perfectly pointed 
Vienna Rolls may be made on these machines. 

Zerah Continuous Proofing Closets 

These closets are a great help in the proofing of 
your doughs. 

Let us tell you more about our machinery. 

WE ARE THE LARGEST EXCLUSIVE MAN- 
UFACTURERS OF BAKERS' MACHINERY IN 
THE COUNTRY. 



C. A. Thomson Machine Co. 

345-349 Main Street, Belleville, N. J. 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



181 




The Hubbard 
Portable Oven 

Meets every requirement in the baking trade. 

Bakes perfectly. 

Send for catalogue and full particulars. 



HUBBARD PORTABLE OVEN CO. 

New York: 262 West Broadway Chicago: 1 136 Beiden Ave. 

Philadelphia: 47 North 7th Street Boston: 10 Broad Street 

St. Louis: 506 North 18th Street 

Write nearest office 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



182 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 

HOYT'S 

GLUTEN 
BISCUIT 
CRISPS 

Made from Gum Gluten 



THE MOST DELICATE GLUTEN PRODUCT MADE. 
RECOMMENDED FOR PROTEIN DIET AND FOR 
INFANT FEEDING. 



ASK ABOUT OUR 



Pure Gluten Flour 



SAMPLE MAILED F*REE 



The Pure Gluten Food Go. 

90 WEST BROADWAY, NEW YORK 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



183 




OP MALT EXTRACT 
for Bakers' Use 



is the Cream Syrup from select, rich, ripe, Min- 
nesota barley malted. 

The day ,has gone by when the baker of 
bread can afford to ignore the value of O P 
Malt Extract. 

The value is real, real to the baker and real 
to his customer. 

Formulae for its proper use in bread work, 
cake, buns, doughnuts, etcetra, will be supplied 
to users. 

Maybe you can get along without it. We 
don't deny it, — so could our ancestors get along 
without steam and electricity, but — 

Send your order now. 

Put up in 112 lb. cases, half barrels and bar- 
rels. 

We are the World's Headquarters for Malt 
Products. 



Malt-Diastaste Co. 



79 Wall St., New York 

Laboratory 

Garden St. & Bushwick Ave. 

Brooklyn. 

Dept. Baking Technology 

1124 Myrtle Ave., Brooklyn. 

Dept. Medicine & Analytical Chemistry 

Maltzyme Co., 21 Smith St., Brooklyn. 




When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



184 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



SEVENTY PER CENT. 

of the bread consumed is baked at home, 
because the housewife thinks it CLEANER 
and BETTER than the bakers' loaf. 

A wrapped loaf SATISFIES her as to its 
cleanliness, and tends to CONVINCE her 
that the quality is superior. 




The large line of Bread Wrappers manu- 
factured by us includes the finest quality that 
can be made, as well as some very good, but 
cheaper ones. 

Some are waxed on one side only and may 
be fastened to the loaf with gummed tape. 
Others are so waxed that they may be sealed 
with heat without using string or tape. 

\$3^=* Send for Samples and Prices. ^^S|T 

T Tl\TTf\ \T WAXED &PARCHMEN1 
LllSl\JlM PAPER COMPANY 

Hamburg, New Jersey 



When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 185 

Take These Three Rings 

Purity Strength Flavor 






Assemble them in this manner 




and you have the mark that stands for the 

best there is in Malt Extract. 

Making- all the malt we use from the best 
barley purchasable enables us to supply you 
with better Malt Extract for less money than any 
°ne in the business. 

Let us prove it to you. 



P. Ballantine & Sons 

Natural Cereal Syrup Dept. 
NEWARK, N. J. 

Distributing Depots- 

NEW YORK, CHICAGO, PHILADELPHIA, 
BOSTON, BUFFALO, TORONTO AND MONTREAL 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



186 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



"Thorobred" Mixer 




Best on SOFT and STIFF Doughs. Easy 
running — few parts — rigid. 

Reduce your LABOR COST and improve 
your output and bank account. 

SIMPLE, DURABLE, EFFICIENT. 



The Lynn-Superior Co. 

CINCINNATI, OHIO 



BOSTON 
NEW YORY 



ST. LOUIS 
KANSAS CITY 



When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



187 



tOhen you need 



Jams, Jellies 
and Pief flings 



Extracts or Specialties 



"Be sure you order from 



H.A. 




STATE ST. 



BOSTON 



Everything for the 

Baker, Confectioner 
and Ice-Cream Maker 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



188 BOOK OF AMERICAN EARING 




In summer, of all times, why use liquid or con- 
densed milk? It sours quickly, attracts flies and 
gives your bake-shop a dirty, unsanitary appearance. 

We are making, as always, the standard milk 
powder — the one by which others are judged. 
EKENFLOR is its name, and it is made in several 
grades, containing various percentages of butter fat. 



THE EKENBERG CO. 

CORTLAND, N. Y., U. S. A. 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



189 



Put a Liquid Iceless 
Soda Fountain 

In Your Retail Store 

It brings in cash 
money and lots of it 
every day. 

The profits are 
large and the soda 
water crowd buys 
your bakery and 
confectionery goods, 
besides increasing 
the business 
of your ice 
cream depart- 
ment. 

Best ad- 
vertisement a 
retail baker 
can have. 

Run it every day in the year — cold sodas in Summer 
and both hot and cold sodas in the Winter. 

THE LIQUID ICELESS 

will save its whole cost in reduced ice bills, compared 
with any other fountain made. 

We sell it on very easy payments — let it pay for 
itself out of part of the profits. 

Write the nearest "Liquid" Branch. Use the coupon. 




The Liquid Carbonic Co. A °* 

CHICAGO New York Pittsburg St. . . • ' ~\,e " <y<* 

Louis Milwaukee Cincinnati Dal- # . • * " e^ c ^ c e# 

las Minneapolis Kansas City . • • " a <v°- \,o ° $P 

Atlanta . - • " ^fi && fco°* .•' 






...-"' <^ 



..••••>^«e- 



^ 



&* 



^V * 



c* 



When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



190 BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 



Fleischmann's 



Yeast 



Has been the STANDARD for half a 
century, thus indicating that its QUALITY 
and UNIFORMITY has always met the 
requirements of Bakers. 

The 

Delivery 

Service 

is as perfect and dependable as the United 
States Mail. 

Fleischmann's Yeast NEVER disappoints 
in any way. 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



BOOK OF AMERICAN BAKING 191 



Keep 
Posted 



Bahers weekly 



is the only Weekly Bakers 
Paper in America and its 
Special Editions devoted to 

the Retail, Wholesale, Opera- 
tive, Technical and Cracker 
Baker are widely read the 
world over. 



DOMESTIC SUBSCRIPTION 
ONE DOLLAR YEARLY 



SAMPLE COPIES ON REQUEST 



AMERICAN TRADE PUBLISHING CO. 

NEW YORK CITY 

When writing advertisers mention Book of American Baking 



«j/'?SP\ s p** '\."'-'" - '1<v* %°*«5$£\.o** ** 







>* ^. 









of 






> >* 



^ *♦* «.*^ ^* '*&*&' ♦MA". "*♦ tfl 
^~* .^ §3*'.. -^ o^W- ^ <? ^^« 




*bv° 




«$<3c 




>••• 




• «• 



.vs*v. \/ .vjSg.. ^ .Vjfer-.'Sj,/ 



bV" 
,0 







rf*<3* 




iP-T*,. 



4w*r> *•' 



































/.C^!.^o /.fe\ rp\.^.% 







*v 



« 0>^ 








* # ^ •- 






HECKMAN 
BINDERY INC. 






JAN 89 

N. MANCHESTER, 
INDIANA 46962 



y 




C» * 



• «o< 






ay 
9 • !,*•* 



